Ed/Psych. 
Lib. 
LB 
1623 
C74 


STATE  OF  OREGON 


COURSE  OF  STUDY 


FOR 


JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 


This  book  :<;  P     r  ,- 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


ERN  BRANCn, 

•35ITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

..OS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 


THE  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


A  MANUAL 

OF 

SUGGESTIONS  AND  STANDARDS  FOR 

JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

IN  OREGON 


Prepared  by 
H.  R.  DOUGLASS 

F.  L.  STETSON 
Department  of  Education,  University  of  Oregon 

SOUTHERN  BRANCH. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 
LIJBRARY, 

^  AWFfiUSS,  CALIF. 

Issued  by 

J.  A.  CHURCHILL 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 


SALEM,  OREGON-! 
STATE  PRINTING  DEPARTMENT 


19»2 


65244 


Education 
Library 

u  \5 


FOREWORD 

Oregon  now  has  and  has  had  for  several  years  a 
number  of  junior  -high  schools,  each  of  which  has  had  a 
somewhat  different  type  of  organization.  The  majority 
have  been  doing  departmental  work  and  should  be  classed 
as  departmental  schools,  rather  than  as  junior  high 
schools.  In  order  that  Oregon  might  have  some  uniformity 
in  its  junior  high  school  organization,  this  pamphlet  has 
been  prepared. 
<5 

We    urge    all    schools    offering    a   junior    high    school 

department  to  study  carefully  the  organization  as  out- 
lined herein  and  meet,  in  so  far  as  possible,  Oregon's 
definition  for  a  junior  high  school. 

I  trust  that  each  high  school  principal  and  each  teacher 
teaching  in  the  junior  high  schools  will  become  familiar 
with  the  history  of  the  organization  as  given  herein,  and 
will  know  the  organization  as  proposed  for  Oregon. 

Very  respectfully, 

J.  A.  CHURCHILL, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

I.    Introductory 

The  problem 

Purpose  of  the  bulletin 

II.    Aims  and  Peculiar  Functions 

III.  Organization 

Grades  included 

The  three-year  school 

The  six-year  secondary  school 

Departmentalization 

The  teaching  load 

The  size  of  classes 

IV.  The  Teaching  Staff 

Preparation 
Experience 

V.    Housing  and  Equipment 

VI.    The  Program  of  Studies 

Underlying  standards  and  principles 

Scope  or  content  of  program  of  studies 
Organization  of  program  of  studies 
Administration  of  the  program  of  studies 

Typical  programs 

Suggested  program  for  Oregon 
Explanatory 
The  course  by  subjects 

VII.    Administration  of  the  Program 
The  daily  schedule 
Division  of  the  class  period 
Admission 
Promotion 
Homogeneous  grouping 

VIII.    Methods  of  Instruction 
Purpose  of  teaching 
Directed  learning 
Socialized  methods 
Project  teaching 
Library  method 
Improving  methods  of  study 
Visual  instruction 

IX.    Social  Organization  and  Control 
Purpose 
Methods 

X.    Tentative  Standards  for  Oregon 
XI.    Selected  Bibliography 


I.    INTRODUCTORY 

THE  PROBLEM 

The  development  of  secondary  education  in  the  United  States  has  not 
been  a  consciously  directed  growth  or  process.  Our  present  organization 
and  facilities  for  secondary  education,  like  Topsy,  "just  growed  up,"  bor- 
rowing frequently  from  various  European  systems  of  education,  guided 
largely  by  tradition,  developing  unevenly  and  without  uniformity.  The 
high  school  of  the  generation  just  passing  was  not  a  logically  thought-out 
solution  of  the  educational  problems  and  needs  of  adolescents. 

In  the  absence  of  definite  policies  and  of  logical  attempts  to  shape 
materials  and  methods  to  the  consciously  determined  objectives  of  sec- 
ondary education,  there  have  crept  into  secondary  school  practice  much 
material  and  many  methods  which  are  now  under  fire.  Complaints  and 
criticisms  by  schoolman  and  layman,  demands  for  reorganization,  and 
varying  efforts  at  reorganization  have  been  made  for  a  number  of  years 
and  are  increasing  in  geometric  ratio.  These  tendencies  heading  toward 
reorganization  center  around  a  few  well  developed  sources  of  dissatisfac- 
tion of  recent  origin  or  discovery.  Because  of  these  changed  conditions, 
educational  and  social,  there  seems  to  be  a  well-defined  need  for  re- 
adjustment of  educational  facilities  and  procedures  to  new  situations  and 
new  problems,  making  use  of  the  most  recently  developed  information  in 
education  and  related  sciences. 

INCREASE  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL  ENROLLMENTS.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  merits  of  the  high  school  as  we  have  had  it  for  the  past  half  century 
or  more  with  its  traditional  curricula,  attended  as  it  was  only  by  the 
favored  few  who  expected  later  to  enter  college — young  people  relatively 
homogeneous  as  to  ability  and  purpose — it  has  become  apparent  that, 
unchanged,  it  does  not  meet  new  needs  and  conditions.  A  marvelous 
increase  in  high  school  enrollments  has  taken  place.  In  1920  four  times 
as  many  boys  and  girls  were  attending  high  school  as  in  1890,  but  thirty 
years  previous.  Children  from  all  strata  of  society,  of  all  varieties  of 
physical,  mental  and  social  inheritance  are  now  coming  on  into  high 
school.  This  development  has  meant  a  lowering  of  the  level  of  ability  of 
high  school  students.  It  has  brought  about  the  diversifying  of  interests 
of  the  high  school  population.  Not  only  will  a  majority  of  these  addi- 
tional high  school  students  not  attend  college  but  those  who  do  will  tend 
to  scatter  in.  the  types  of  work  taken  at  college  due  to  the  recent  develop- 
ment in  higher  education  of  the  many  new  vocational  schools,  e.  g.,  of 
business,  of  agriculture,  of  dentistry,  of  journalism,  of  forestry,  etc. 
Naturally  those  who  do  not  complete  high  school  or  who  do  not  attend 
college  will  vary  widely  in  interests,  vocational  and  otherwise,  as  well  a& 
in  ability. 

DEVELOPMENTS  IN  ADOLESCENT  PSYCHOLOGY.  It  was  thought  for  a 
long  time  that  the  development  of  young  people  through  the  period  of 
adolescence  was  not  a  gradual  process  but  that  very  important  changes 
took  place  within  a  few  months  at  junctures  that  could  be  marked  out 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 


in  terms  of  the  age  of  the  child.  Experimental  and  statistical  study  have 
made  this  theory  almost  untenable.*  Recent  investigation  justifies  the 
following  conclusions: 

1.  Physical   and   physiological   transition   is  much  more   nearly  gradual   than 
formerly  supposed. 

2.  Mental  development  and  changes  do  not  necessarily  parallel  physical  and 
physiological  development  and  changes. 

3.  There  is  a  wide  variation  among  boys  and  among  girls  and  between  boys 
and  girls  as  to  the  chronological  age  when  development  of  adolescence  begins  and 
when  it  is  complete. 

4.  There  is  no  particular  school  grade  at  which  changes  may  be  said  to  take 
place   but   the   period   at  which   change    seems    to   be   most    rapid   corresponds   to 
grades  seven,  eight  and  nine. 

DEMAND  FOR  ECONOMY  OF  TIME.  School  men  in  this  country  have 
within  recent  years  taken  cognizance  of  the  fact  that  young  people  in  the 
United  States  begin  their  secondary  and  higher  education  several  years 
later  in  life  than  in  other  countries.  It  was  with  this  condition  in  mind 
that  President  Eliot  of  Harvard  in  the  early  eighties  pointed  out  the 
need  for  the  reorganization  of  secondary  education  and  pushing  down- 
ward certain  features  of  secondary  education  into  the  years  commonly 
occupied  with  elementary  education.  It  may  be  said  that  the  junior  high 
school  movement  received  its  original  impetus  from  this  criticism.  It 
has  been  urged  by  many  that  too  much  time  has  been  spent  on  elementary 
school  subjects  for  the  results  secured.  A  number  of  important  bodies, 
including  the  well-known  committees  of  the  National  Society  for  the 
Study  of  Education,  have  been  at  work  upon  the  economy  of  time  in  the 
elementary  school.  There  exists  now  a  distinct  and  widespread  demand 
for  the  beginning  of  secondary  school  studies  and  methods  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  years. 

ELIMINATION  AND  RETARDATION.  The  results  of  the  studies  made  by 
Ayers,  Blan,  Cornman,  and  others  a  decade  ago  were  startling.  They 
disclosed  the  fact  that  boys  and  girls  in  the  United  States  attend  school 
almost  universally  up  to  the  sixth  grade  and  from  that  grade  on  the 
leakage  is  enormous,  more  than  60  per  cent  being  lost  by  the  close  of  the 
ninth  year.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  causes  of 
this  elimination.  It  becomes  evident  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
these  causes  with  any  degree  of  exactness.  In  most  instances  withdrawal 
is  due  to  a  complexity  of  causes,  the  relative  force  of  each  of  which  it  was 
impossible  to  determine.  However,  it  is  commonly  believed  by  those 
studying  the  situation  that  very  prominent  among  these  causes  is  the 
maladjustment  of  school  organization,  courses  of  study,  teaching  corps, 
and  methods  of  teaching  to  the  pupils  of  the  upper  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  and  the  lower  grades  of  the  high  school.  Much  promi- 
nence has  been  given  to  the  sharp  transition  from  elementary  school 
organizations,  government,  studies,  teachers,  and  methods  of  teaching  to 
high  school  organization,  government,  studies,  teachers,  and  methods  of 
teaching.  That  this  gap  between  elementary  school  and  high  school  is 
unfortunate  and  demands  attention  is  evidenced  by  the  large  percentage 
of  elimination  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  year  and  during  the  ninth  year. 

*  See  Inglis,  J.  A. :    "Principles  of  Secondary  Education,"   Chapters  I  and  II. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


For  example,  in  Oregon,  a  most  fortunate  state  in  this  respect,  the 
elimination  at  this  period  for  the  past  few  years  has  been  between  30 
and  40  per  cent.*  Here  lies  a  serious  problem  for  secondary  education. 

LACK  OF  GUIDANCE.  A  very  recent  development  but  a  very  important 
one  is  the  increased  responsibility  generally  conceded  the  secondary  school 
in  the  matter  of  guidance — educational,  moral,  and  vocational.  Much 
personal  grief  and  social  waste  has  resulted  from  the  lack  of  any 
machinery  for  making  available  to  young  people  the  advice  and  experi- 
ence of  older  people  in  the  important  choice  of  educational  programs  and 
life  occupations.  Responsibility  for  these  matters  has  been  slowly  shift- 
ing from  home  to  school  and,  simultaneously  with  the  recognition  of  the 
tremendous  consequence  of  the  lack  of  guidance,  the  school  is  importuned 
to  arrange  for  this  new  burden  and  opportunity. 

QUALITY  OF  INSTRUCTION.  One  of  the  most  vulnerable  spots  in  the 
work  of  the  upper  elementary  grades  and  the  high  school  and  one  which 
the  junior  high  school  is  calculated  to  remedy  very  materially  is  the 
quality  of  the  instruction  during  these  years.  Whatever  may  be  the 
causes  for  this  situation,  the  criticism  is  general  and  urgent  as  may 
be  witnessed  by  opinions  expressed  by  laymen  and  educators  widely, 
vigorously,  and  frequently.  The  possibility  of  the  junior  high  school  as 
a  goal  to  be  realized  in  the  near  future  is  due  in  large  part  to  the  lack 
of  confidence  of  people  generally  in  educational  results  obtained  during 
the  years  involved. 

PURPOSE  OF  THE  BULLETIN 

Because  of  general  dissatisfaction  with  conditions  in  secondary  educa- 
cation  as  it  is  now  organized  and  administered,  because  of  the  publicity 
the  movement  has  received,  and  because  of  closely  related  building 
problems  for  which  the  junior  high  school  has  seemed  a  likely  solution, 
this  type  of  school  has  grown  apace.  Junior  high  schools  and  so-called 
junior  high  schools  have  sprung  up  over  the  country  in  large  numbers. 
Because  of  the  unwillingness  of  superintendents,  school  boards,  or  com- 
munities to  initiate  the  necessary  changes  or  vote  the  necessary  financial 
support  in  their  school  systems,  the  reorganization  in  a  very  large  number 
of  cases  has  been  but  partial.  Ambitious  superintendents  have  permitted 
these  partial  reorganizations  to  be  styled  "junior  high  schools."  This 
lack  of  uniformity  has  produced  a  situation  in  which  the  term  "junior 
high  school"  may  mean  almost  anything.  Oregon  has  been  no  exception 
in  this  respect. 

Beginning  about  1916,  there  has  been  a  nation-wide  effort  to  stand- 
ardize the  junior  high  school  sufficiently  to  permit  classification.  While 
it  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable  to  set  up  inflexible  standards,  it  is 
essential  to  the  interests  of  the  junior  high  school  movement  and  its 
ideals  that  the  public  and  the  rank  and  file  of  the  teaching  profession  do 
not  judge  the  movement,  its  aims,  and  its  possibilities  by  institutions 


*  Statistics  of  enrollments  in  Oregon  high  schools  issued  recently  from  the  office  of 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction  show  an  enrollment  in  second  year  English 
of  5,940  as  against  8,964  for  first  year  English.  As  both  years  of  English  are  required  in 
all  Oregon  high  schools,  these  figures  indicate  an  elimination  of  approximately  33  per 
cent  during  or  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  year. 


8 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

which  are  not  junior  high  schools,  though  they  may  embody  one  or  several 
of  its  features.  Whether  or  not  the  institution  or  the  movement  may  be 
the  desired  solution  of  the  problems  of  secondary  education  for  which  it 
is  offered  it  is  very  desirable  that  it  be  judged  only  through  adequate 
examples  of  it. 

With  the  desire  to  be  of  service  to  the  educational  interests  of  the 
state  and  with  the  above  considerations  in  mind,  the  state  department 
of  education  wishes  to  submit  this  bulletin,  hoping  to  provide  by  it  sug- 
gestions for  those  interested  in  the  establishing  of  junior  high  schools 
and  definite  standards  by  which  such  may  be  recognized  in  the  state  of 
Oregon.  It  is  evident  that  in  so  brief  a  space  a  complete  development  of 
the  material  presented  can  not  be  included.  There  will  be  found  ap- 
pended, however,  a  brief,  selected  bibliography  touching  upon  various 
phases  of  the  subject.  Most  of  this  material  is  easily  accessible  and  those 
contemplating  organization  of  junior  high  schools  should  familiarize 
themselves  with  no  small  portion  of  it.  It  should  be  emphasized  that  the 
junior  high  school  idea  involves  a  wide  range  of  problems  and  an  adequate 
understanding  of  the  movement,  its  spirit  and  theory,  and  its  technique, 
requires  considerable  study. 


II.    AIMS  AND  PECULIAR  FUNCTIONS  OF 
JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL 


There  are  several  considerations  that  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  any 
attempt  to  make  a  statement  of  the  aims  of  the  junior  high  school.  In 
the  first  place  it  may  be  said  that  it  has  its  ultimate  aim,  the  aims  of 
education  in  general  and  of  secondary  education  in  particular.  Perhaps 
no  better  statement  of  these  is  to  be  had  than  may  be  found  in  the  report 
of  the  Commission  on  the  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education,*  ap- 
pointed by  the  National  Education  Association,  as  follows: 

"Consequently  education  in  a  democracy,  both  within  and  without  the  school, 
should  develop  in  each  individual  the  Knowledge,  interests,  ideals,  habits,  and 
powers  whereby  he  will  find  his  place  and  use  that  place  to  shape  both  himself 
and  society  toward  ever  nobler  ends." 

"The  commission,  therefore,  regards  the  following  as  the  main  objectives  of 
education  :  1.  Health  ;  2.  Command  of  fundamental  processes  ;  3.  Worthy  home 
membership  ;  4.  Vocation  ;  5.  Citizenship  ;  6.  Worthy  use  of  leisure  ;  7.  Ethical 
character." 

It  is  naturally  the  aim  of  the  junior  high  school  to  contribute  the 
maximum  to  these  aims  and  objectives.  However,  it  is  evident  from  an 
examination  of  the  literature  dealing  with  the  reorganization  of  sec- 
ondary education  that  there  are  special  functions  that  a  junior  high 
school  resulting  from  reorganization  should  perform.  These  have  partic- 
ular reference  to  the  underlying  causes  for  reorganization.  While  there 
is  yet  lacking  a  definite  agreement  as  to  what  these  functions  may  be 
in  detail,  the  best  practice  and  most  reliable  literature  indicate  the 
following: 

1.  To  provide  gradual  and  more  certain  transition  from  elementary 
to  secondary  education. 


*  "Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,"  pp.  9,  10. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


2.  To   explore   and   discover   the   abilities,    interests   and    capacities, 
individual  and  common,  of  young  people  of  the  ages  affected. 

3.  To    provide   for    the    more    complete    adjustment   of    educational 
materials  and  methods  to  the  capacities,  interests  and  abilities,  individual 
and  common,  of  these  young  people. 

4.  To  create  a  more  favorable  educational  environment  for  the  devel- 
opment of  social  good  will  and  effective  social  activity. 

IMPLICATIONS  OF  THE  AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  STATED  ABOVE. 

Educational  organization,  materials  of  instruction,  methods  of  instruc- 
tion and  administration,  material  equipment,  and  instructional  and  super- 
visory personnel,  all  must  be  so  chosen,  organized,  and  administered  in 
the  junior  high  school  as  to  contribute  most  heavily  to  its  avowed  aims 
and  functions  and  to  furnish  the  most  satisfactory  solutions  to  the 
problems  out  of  which  the  demand  for  reorganization  has  arisen. 

The  junior  high  school  must  function  as  a  transition  school.  The 
courses  of  study  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  provide  for  a  gradual 
transition  from  elementary  school  studies  to  those  of  the  secondary  school. 
Methods  of  teaching,  school  organization,  and  school  government  must 
be  such  as  will  take  the  pupil  as  he  comes  from  the  sixth  grade  and 
gradually  but  completely  acclimate  him  to  conditions  as  he  will  find  them 
in  the  senior  high  school.  At  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in 
mind  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  emotional  changes  being  undergone 
by  the  pupil.  Ordinarily  this  means  gradual  introduction  of  depart- 
mentalization and  of  student  participation  in  government,  gradual  in- 
crease of  electives  in  the  courses  of  study,  the  earlier  and  more  gradual 
introduction  of  subjects  hitherto  taught  as  high  school  subjects,  equip- 
ment and  surroundings  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  elementary 
school,  and  contacts  with  teachers  of  the  high  school  type  and  of  both 
sexes. 

Exploration  of  aptitudes,  capacities,  and  interests  means  first  of  all 
an  enriched  curriculum.  It  means  the  introduction  of  types  of  work  not 
ordinarily  found  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the  elementary 
school — prevocational  work  of  a  number  of  kinds,  foreign  language,  and 
science. 

Most  complete  adjustment  to  these  aptitudes,  capacities,  and  interests 
necessitates  not  only  an  enriched  curriculum  but  also  the  use  of  a  plan 
for  electives.  It  means  organization  so  that  progress  may  be  made  by 
gifted  and  slower  pupils  at  rates  commensurate  with  their  abilities  and 
interests.  It  means  special  progress  classes  and  promotion  by  subject. 
It  also  means,  without  question,  definite  educational  guidance. 

A  junior  high  school  properly  conceived  must  take  cognizance  of  the 
necessity  for  providing  definite  and  effective  means  for  developing  in 
its  pupils  the  spirit  of  social  good  will.  It  must  train  in  effective  social 
participation.  Group  projects  of  many  types  must  be  encouraged. 
Various  forms  of  teams,  athletic  and  intellectual,  and  various  types  of 
clubs  for  all  sorts  of  helpful  and  harmless  student  activity  must  exist. 
Student  participation  in  the  management  of  the  school  as  well  as  of 
student  affairs  should  be  permitted  and  directed.  Methods  of  teaching 
must  become  more  natural  and  social. 


10  COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

The  successful  performance  of  functions  in  the  junior  high  school 
involves  an  adequate  and  suitable  teaching  and  administrative  staff, 
housing,  and  equipment.  It  involves  specially  adapted  courses  of  study, 
methods  of  instruction,  management,  and  government,  and  a  new  school 
spirit.  It  is  hoped  that  a  fairly  definite  development  of  these  points 
appear  in  the  following  pages. 

III.    ORGANIZATION 

GRADES  INCLUDED 

THE  THREE- YEAR  SCHOOL. 

The  most  common  organization  of  the  junior  high  school  has  included 
grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine.  However,  a  very  considerable  number  of 
schools  have  organized  with  grades  seven  and  eight,  or  six,  seven,  and 
eight,  and  various  other  combinations  have  been  found.  Of  743  junior 
high  schools  reported  in  the  combined  studies  of  Briggs,  Davis,  and 
Douglass,  327  or  54  per  cent  were  of  the  7-9  type,  281  or  37  per  cent  of 
the  7-8  type,  with  the  remaining  19  per  cent  scattered  over  a  variety 
of  types. 

The  form  of  organization  in  many  of  these  cases  where  but  grades 
7-8  are  included  has  been  determined  by  local  building  situations  or  legal 
restrictions.  In  some  cities  where  junior  colleges  have  been  established 
in  connection  with  the  senior  high  school,  grades  7-10  inclusive  have  been 
included.  However,  general  practice,  where  prohibitive  conditions  have 
not  existed,  has  been  to  group  together  grades  7-9.  For  the  purpose  of 
securing  homogeneity  and  to  foster  the  function  of  safe  and  gradual 
transition  by  the  reduction  of  the  gap  between  grades  eight  and  nine, 
this  plan  is  to  be  preferred.  That  this  view  is  held  rather  widely  was 
shown  in  the  study  made  by  Briggs.  Of  61  judges,  16  professors  of 
education,  8  state  superintendents  of  schools,  19  city  superintendents, 
and  18  principals  of  junior  high  schools,  95.1  per  cent  approved  com- 
bining grades  7-9,  while  but  19.7  per  cent  approved  of  combining  merely 
grades  7  and  8. 

In  this  same  study,  68.8  per  cent  favored  the  including  of  a  "distinct 
educational  unit"  as  an  element  in  the  definition  of  the  junior  high  school. 
Approximately  86  per  cent  recommended  a  separation  in  organization 
from  the  elementary  grades  and  almost  as  many  urged  a  separation  from 
the  senior  high  school. 

THE  Six- YEAR  SECONDARY  SCHOOL. 

It  may  be  urged,  however,  that  there  are  certain  considerations  of 
economy  which  make  a  combination  junior-senior  high  school  (grades 
7-12  in  two  divisions  of  three  years  each)  a  very  useful  plan  of  organiza- 
tion for  the  smaller  cities.  The  six-year  plan  is  recommended  for  the 
consideration  of  all  districts  in  Oregon  other  than  those  of  the  first 
class,  where  reorganization  is  planned.  This  plan  of  organization  has 
been  found  satisfactory  in  a  large  number  of  school  systems.  Well-known 
examples  are  at  Lewiston,  Idaho;  Evansville,  Indiana;  Rochester,  Minne- 
sota; and  the  university  high  schools  of  the  universities  of  Wisconsin 
and  Oregon. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 11 

The  following  arguments  which  for  the  smaller  town  have  considerable 
force  may  be  presented  for  the  plan: 

«.  It  permits  of  a  common  and  more  complete  use  of  shops,  laboratories, 
auditorium,  library,  and  other  rooms  and  equipment  which  are  required  for  both 
schools  and  which  would  be  idle  a  portion  of  the  day  when  used  by  one  school 
only.  By  the  common  use  of  such  rooms  and  equipment  not  only  can  much 
duplication  be  avoided  but  it  is  likely  that  much  better  conveniences  and  facilities 
in  these  matters  will  be  provided  than  could  be  provided  by  either  of  the,  schools 
separately. 

b.  The  successful  installation  and  operation  of  the  junior  high  school  demands 
a  principal  of  much  better  training  and  natural  ability  than  the  smaller  city  is 
able  to  employ  for  a  junior  high  school  alone.     It  is  suggested  that  by  combining 
the  administrative  responsibility  of  the  two  schools  in  one  adequately  paid  expert 
in  high  school  administration,  a  much  better  type  of  leadership  for  both  schools 
may  be  secured. 

c.  The  housing  of  the  divisions  of  secondary  education  together  operates  to 
eliminate  the  break  between  the  two  divisions.     It  obviates  the  transfer  by  pupils 
at  the  end  of  the  ninth  year  to  a  strange  building,  new  teachers,  and  principal. 

rf.  It  is  also  possible  under  this  plan  to  carry  out  a  more  complete  depart- 
mentalization and  to  utilize  heads  of  departments  for  both  schools — a  distinct 
advantage  in  most  instances  to  the  junior  high  school. 

e.  This  plan  is  more  likely  to  insure  to  the  junior  high  school  a  quality  of 
teaching  equal  to  that  in  the  senior  high  school  since,  to  some  extent  at  least,  a 
common  teaching  staff  is  used. 

f.  The  plan   is  very  well  adapted  to  economizing  time.     It  is  much  simpler 
and   safer   to   spread  a  year  saved   over  five  years  rather  than   over  but  three. 
That  is,  it  is  wiser  to  have  students  doing  six  years  work  in  five  than  to  have 
them  doing  three  years  work  in  two  in  either  the  junior  or  the  senior  high  school. 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION 

One  of  the  features  most  commonly,  almost  uniformly,  incorporated  in 
the  organization  of  the  junior  high  schools  is  the  assignment  of  teachers 
by  subjects.  This,  together  with  a  separate  housing  unit,  in  many  schools 
constitutes  the  "reorganization."  That  this  is  the  case  is  unfortunate. 
These  provisions  are  only  two  of  many  in  a  really  reorganized  school  and 
it  does  not  seem  that  they  constitute  the  heart  of  the  idea.  In  fact,  there 
are  some  very  plausible  arguments  against  departmentalization.  It  is 
said  that  the  personal  relations  between  teacher  and  pupil  are  lost  in 
departmental  organization;  that  it  creates  difficulties  and  inflexibility 
in  schedule  making;  that  it  is  difficult  for  pupils  to  adjust  to  several 
teachers;  that  it  tends  to  make  teachers  narrow  specialists;  that  there 
is  no  assumed  responsibility  for  such  matters  as  penmanship,  spelling, 
and  matters  of  general  control  and  discipline.*  These  are  dangers  that 
must  be  guarded  against  and  the  installation  of  departmentalization  must 
be  made  with  a  view  to  preventing  the  miscarriage  of  the  plan.  It  is 
especially  desirable  that  departmentalization  be  introduced  gradually, 
retaining  somewhat  of  the  personal  relationship  and  sense  of  responsi- 
bility that  characterizes  the  elementary  school  in  the  seventh  grade  by 
means  of  rollroom  organization  or  special  advisors  and  limited  depart- 
mentalization. These  features  may,  of  course,  be  gradually  removed  as 
a  transition  measure. 


*  The  above  and  other  arguments  against  departmentalization  teaching,  together  with 
arguments  for  it,  are  given  in  Briggs,  "The  Junior  High  School,"  pp.  127-130. 


12 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

In  the  University  of  Oregon  high  school,  the  "seventh  grader"  has 
two  of  his  five  daily  classes  with  a  teacher  of  arithmetic  and  geography, 
who  is  also  advisor  and  rollroom  teacher  of  this  grade.  This  teacher  is 
chosen  with  a  view  to  placing  with  the  grade  a  personality  well  adapted 
to  the  age  of  pupils  found  here,  and  one  with  experience  in  elementary 
school  work  of  this  grade.  The  room  or  grade  solidarity  is  carefully 
encouraged  during  this  year.  In  the  eighth  grade,  a  more  complete  depart- 
mentalization occurs,  though  the  rollroom  teacher  and  organization  are 
retained.  In  the  ninth  year,  complete  departmentalization  is  under  way, 
only  the  room  organization  being  maintained.  Thus,  gradual  transition 
in  organization,  spirit  of  discipline,  teaching  methods,  and  personal  touch 
is  effected.  How  this  is  done  in  the  matter  of  the  studies  may  be  seen 
by  an  examination  of  the  program  of  studies  given  elsewhere  in  this 
publication. 

The  assignment  of  teachers  to  subjects  should  be  done  with  care  and 
judgment.  Departmental  assignments  imply  specialization.  Teachers 
should  be  assigned  to  those  subjects  only  in  which  they  have  specially 
prepared  and  in  which  their  interests  lie.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  may  be 
laid  down  as  to  which  subjects  should  be  assigned  to  normal  school 
graduates  and  which  to  college  and  university  graduates.  While  it  is 
likely  that,  in  general,  geography  and  arithmetic  should  be  assigned  to 
normal  school  graduates  and  that  foreign  languages,  science,  history,  and 
social  science  should  be  assigned  to  college  and  university  graduates,  after 
all  the  matter  must  be  settled  in  each  individual  case  on  the  basis  of 
special  preparation  and  interest. 

THJE  TEACHING  LOAD 

A  high  quality  of  teaching  can  be  expected  only  when  a  fair  teaching 
load  is  assigned.  What  should  constitute  the  teaching  load  in  the  junior 
high  school?  In  the  recent  study  of  the  junior  high  schools  in  Kansas, 
it  was  found  that  over  60  per  cent  of  the  academic  teachers  are  teaching 
five  periods  of  from  forty  to  forty-five  minutes  each.  It  is  very  likely, 
however,  that  a  larger  number  of  schools  are  assigning  six  classes  to 
each  teacher  than  any  other  number.  It  is  certain  that  accepted  practice 
would  not  permit  more.  If  there  is  to  be  professional  teaching — teaching 
on  a  higher  level  than  mere  lesson-hearing — teachers  must  spend  approxi- 
mately as  much  time  in  daily  preparation  as  in  teaching.  A  junior  high 
school  can  be  no  stronger  than  the  quality  of  the  instruction  given  in  it. 

SIZE  OF  CLASSES 

The  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory  Schools 
recommends  as  a  maximum  twenty-five  pupils  to  a  class  and  sets  up  a 
standard  for  membership  that  th«  school  have  no  recitation  class  enrolling 
more  than  thirty  pupils.  It  is  certain  that  a  desirable  quality  of  work 
can  not  be  obtained  more  easily  in  the  junior  high  school  with  large 
classes  than  in  the  four  year  high  school.  Because  of  the  decreasing 
necessity  for  individual  guidance,  mass  education  becomes  more  prac- 
ticable with  increase  in  age  and  maturity. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 13 

IV.    THE  TEACHING  STAFF 

No  item  is  more  essential  to  an  effective  junior  high  school  than  the 
selection  of  a  suitable  principal  and  staff  of  teachers.  Briggs,  Davis, 
Lewis,  Bennett,  Simonds,  Gugle,  and  an  overwhelming  majority  of  college 
teachers  of  education  and  school  superintendents  who  have  given  study 
to  the  junior  high  school  movement,  are  positive  in  their  statements 
regarding  the  necessity  of  placing  in  the  junior  high  school  a  very  high 
quality  of  teacher.  It  is  on  this  score  more  than  on  any  other  that  the 
junior  high  school  has  fallen  short  of  its  possibilities.  In  a  large  number 
of  "junior  high  schools"  the  teaching  force  is  made  up  very  largely  of 
elementary  school  teachers  and,  in  some  cases,  is  paid  on  the  scale  paid  in 
the  elementary  school.*  While  the  preparation  of  the  junior  high  school 
teacher  is  an  important  consideration,  it  is  even  more  necessary  to  secure 
the  highest  type  of  personality  and  natural  ability  that  is  available.  With 
reference  to  managing  ability  and  teaching  craftsmanship,  the  junior 
high  school  teacher  must  be  the  peer  of  teachers  anywhere  in  the  school 
system.  There  is  little  doubt  that  this  period  in  the  life  of  children  is  a 
critical  period,  the  stage  of  transition,  the  trying  age,  the  years  of  grief 
to  parent  and  to  teacher.  It  is  the  period  of  most  marked  elimination 
from  school,  of  truancy,  of  running  away  from  home,  of  the  beginning  of 
juvenile  crime — ages  twelve,  thirteen,  fourteen,  and  fifteen. 

An  adequate  teaching  staff  is  the  sine  qua  nan  of  a  functioning  junior 
high  school.  The  values  of  all  materials,  organization,  and  equipment  are 
dependent  on  the  skill  of  the  agent.  We  may  approximate  the  junior 
high  school  idea  with  some  one  or  two  of  the  commonly  accepted  essentials 
lacking.  There  are  objections  to  departmental  teaching  and  to  supervised 
study.  In  the  smallest  schools,  promotion  by  subject  is  sometimes  im- 
practical. But  under  no  set  of  circumstances  can  one  make  a  case  for 
inferior  teachers. 

In  no  school  system  where  men  and  the  better  teachers  are  attracted 
to  the  senior  high  school  can  the  junior  high  school  be  expected  to  realize 
its  aims  in  the  face  of  such  competition.  Teachers  look  with  favor  upon 
being  assigned  to  higher  grades  and,  even  with  equal  salaries,  it  will 
require  care  to  assure  to  the  junior  high  school  the  expert  teaching  staff 
that  is  essential.  If  any  differences  in  salaries  are  to  be  made,  if  some 
teachers  must  be  paid  lower  salaries,  discrimination  should  not  be  made 
against  the  corps  of  the  junior  high  school. 

In  districts  where  the  most  effective  junior  high  schools  are  main- 
tained, the  tendency  is  towards  equal  preparation  and  equal  salaries  for 
teachers  in  both  high  schools. 

PREPARATION 

There  must  be  certain  standards  by  which  we  decide  what  type  of 
teacher  or  what  qualifications  or  training  are  more  desirable.  The  ideal 
preparation  for  the  teacher  in  this  new  school  is  probably  neither  the 
usual  normal  school  training  nor  the  usual  teachers'  course  in  college. 
It  has  been  said  that  better  than  either  of  the  above  types  of  preparation 


*  This  is  not  true  at  Los  Angeles,  St.  Louis,  Rochester,  Cincinnati,  Detroit,  and  of  an 
increasing  number  of  other  cities  where  the  junior  high  school  is  functioning  effectively. 


14 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

would  be  the  two  year  normal  school  course  followed  by  two  years  of 
college  work  leading  to  a  degree.  Perhaps  just  as  well  would  be  a  four 
year  course  in  a  normal  school  which  has  collegiate  strength  in  its 
academic  departments  or  a  four  year  course  in  the  university  where 
there  is  a  well-developed  department  of  education.  The  junior  high 
school  teacher  prepared  in  this  type  of  institution  should  have  had  more 
work  in  education  than  is  now  ordinarily  taken  by  those  preparing  to 
teach  in  high  schools. 

It  is  questionable  whether  all  teachers  in  any  one  school  should  be 
educated  in  either  the  normal  school  or  the  college.  Much  better  would 
be  the  plan  of  having,  in  the  schools  teachers  prepared  in  each  type  of 
institution.  Neither  undue  emphasis  upon  subject  matter  with  a  cor- 
responding minimizing  of  the  child  factor  nor  the  reverse  condition  is 
then  likely  to  obtain.  Other  things  being  equal,  teachers  should  be 
selected  who  have  had  special  training  in  secondary  education,  adolescent 
psychology,  and  special  method  courses  in  junior  high  school  subjects. 

It  is  imperative  that  only  teachers  of  adequate  academic  and  pro- 
fessional preparation  be  permitted  to  teach  in  junior  high  schools,  but 
even  more  important  is  it  that  the  junior  high  school  teacher  become  a 
specialist  in  her  work,  keeping  constantly  abreast  of  the  times,  studying 
developments  in  subject  matter  and  teaching  methods.  In  no  section  of 
public  education  is  change  being  undergone  on  so  thoroughgoing  a  scale 
or  so  rapidly,  and  the  end  is  not  yet.  At  the  present  time  there  are  at 
work  a  number  of  committees  of  national  scope  and  importance  making 
detailed  study  of  materials  and  njethods  of  high  school  teaching  and 
administration.  In  consequence,  one  of  the  considerations  to  be  kept  in 
mind  in  selecting  the  teaching  corps  of  the  junior  high  school  is  the 
inclination  and  ability  to  master  and  keep  abreast  of  development  in  the 
subject  matter  and  methodology  of  the  field  in  which  the  teacher  is 
to  teach. 

EXPERIENCE 

As  indicated  previously,  the  junior  high  school  is  no  place  for  the 
young  graduate  to  secure  experience.  If  one  division  of  secondary 
education  is  to  be  a  recruiting  or  training  vestibule  for  the  other,  the 
senior  high  school  should  be  so  used.  The  junior  high  school  staff  should 
have  a  large  percentage  of  teachers  of  several  years  of  successful 
experience. 

Just  as  it  is  not  desirable  for  all  members  of  the  staff  to  have  been 
prepared  at  either  the  normal  school  or  at  the  college  or  university,  so  it 
is  not  to  be  recommended  that  all  should  have  elementary  school  experi- 
ence, or  that  all  have  high  school  experience.  There  should  be  some 
teachers  having  had  experience  in  each  division.  It  would  be  splendid  if 
all  junior  high  school  teachers  could  have  had  experience  in  both.  Normal 
school  graduates,  particularly  those  having  had  experience  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  probably  should  teach  largely  the  work  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades,  while  college  graduates  of  high  school  experience 
should  be  assigned  in  general  to  eighth  and  ninth  grade  children. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 15 

V.    HOUSING  AND  EQUIPMENT 

It  can  hardly  be  said  that  proper  housing  and  equipment  take  rank 
with  the  teaching  force  and  curriculum  adjustment  as  essentials  of  the 
junior  high  school,  yet  many  attempts  at  junior  high  schools  have  fallen 
short  because  of  the  lack  of  sufficiently  favorable  material  for  the  plan 
to  function.  Boards  of  education  and  superintendents  have  too  often 
thought  of  housing  and  equipment  with  elementary  school  standards  and 
needs  in  mind. 

The  building  and  equipment  of  the  junior  high  school  should  be  little 
inferior,  if  any,  to  that  of  the  senior  high  school.  It  has  been  the  practice 
in  American  public  schools  to  erect  large  and  beautiful  high  schools  for 
the  minority  who  continue  through  them  and  to  house  the  larger  number 
of  students  in  the  upper  grades — most  of  whom  are  at  an  age  of  educa- 
tional crisis  and  many  of  whom  are  receiving  the  last  they  shall  ever 
receive  in  the  way  of  school  training — in  buildings  designed  and  equipped 
for  elementary  education.  Socializing  activities  and  exercises  have  been 
all  but  impossible  for  the  want  of  an  auditorium.  Textbook  teaching  has 
been  relied  upon  as  a  sole  means  of  education  because  of  the  lack  of 
means  of  visual  education  and  the  inadequacy  of  library  facilities.  Science 
instruction  has  been  confined  to  reading  material.  Manual  training  and 
household  arts  have  been  taught  under  discouraging  circumstances.  These 
conditions  can  not  continue  to  obtain  if  we  are  to  have  genuine  junior 
high  schools. 

The  junior  high  school  building  should  contain  specially  designed 
rooms  for  manual  and  household  arts,  as  well  as  laboratory  facilities  for 
general  science  on  a  par  with  the  equipment  provided  for  science  classes 
in  the  senior  high  school.  A  minimum  equipment  for  the  smallest  school 
in  this  respect  would  be  not  less  than  $250  or  $300  and  should  be  several 
times  that  amount. 

There  should  be  a  well-chosen  library  of  books  selected  with  the  view 
of  being  usable  as  sources  of  material  in  instruction  in  civics,  history, 
science,  literature,  geography,  and  English.  Accepted  library  standards 
would  indicate  that  an  adequate  library  equipment  would  involve  not  less 
than  500  volumes  chosen  with  reference  to  the  work  of  the  school,  for 
even  the  smaller  schools.  This  number  should  increase  with  the  enroll- 
ment of  the  school,  always  exceeding  a  ratio  of  five  volumes  per  student 
enrolled.  These  should  include  at  least  one  standard  encyclopedia,  several 
copies  of  complete  and  modern  atlases,  and  several  copies  of  unabridged 
dictionaries.  The  library  should  be  catalogued  according  to  a  standard 
system  by  a  competent  trained  librarian.  At  least  some  supervision  of 
the  library  should  be  given  by  such  a  person  and  in  the  larger  schools  a 
full-time  librarian  will  be  found  economical  and  should  be  employed.  The 
library  room  should  be  of  sufficient  size  and  equipped  with  seats  so  that 
entire  class  sections  may  be  brought  in  from  time  to  time.  It  should  be 
located  so  as  to  adjoin  the  study  hall  and  between  the  study  halls  if  two 
of  them  are  maintained.  It  should  not  be  necessary  for  pupils  to  leave 
the  study  hall  to  obtain  references  or  other  books  needed.  The  library 
should  be  furnished  with  adequate  shelving,  reading  tables,  magazine 
racks,  and  card  catalogue.* 


*  For    complete   discussions    for   standards    see    Report   cf   the    Committee   on    Library 
Organization  and  Equipment. 


16 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

The  building  should  be  built  especially  for  junior  high  school  purposes, 
or,  if  an  old  building  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be  remodeled  to  suit  its  new 
uses.  In  the  larger  cities  the  junior  high  school  should  be  separately 
housed.  In  smaller  localities  it  should  be  housed  with  the  senior  schools 
or  on  adjacent  sites  for  reasons  discussed  elsewhere  in  this  publication. 
Housing  the  junior  high  school  in  a  building  used  also  as  an  elementary 
school  is  rarely  successful  and  should  be  done  only  in  case  of  absolute 
necessity.  In  milder  climates  much  is  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  one-story 
building  with  no  stairways  for  girls  to  climb  and  with  the  decreased 
fire  risk. 

There  should  be  an  auditorium  with  a  stage  for  dramatic  productions, 
assemblies,  and  similar  exercises.  The  seating  capacity  should  be  some- 
what in  excess  of  the  enrollment  of  the  school.  It  should  also  be 
equipped  with  projection  machine,  screen,  and  means  for  completely  dark- 
ening the  room.  Either  in  connection  with  the  auditorium,  or  preferably 
as  a  separate  room,  there  should  be  a  gymnasium  of  sufficient  size  for 
games  of  volley  ball,  basket  ball,  and  indoor  baseball. 

In  general,  there  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  matter  of  housing 
and  equipment  certain  considerations  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
teaching  force  of  the  junior  high  school.  At  no  other  period  is  the 
situation  more  critical,  or  does  the  teacher  need  more  favorable  setting 
and  equipment.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  so  house  and  equip  the 
school  that  the  largest  possible  number  of  pupils  may  be  retained  in  school 
through  this  period  and  the  instruction  may  be  most  effective  and  valu- 
able, especially  for  those  who  are  receiving  their  last  formal  school 
education. 

VI.    THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 

The  junior  high  school  may  best  be  regarded  as  an  institution  for 
meeting  the  characteristic  individual  and  social  needs  of  early  adolescence. 
It  is  peculiarly  a  transition  school  and,  as  such,  is  charged  with  the 
special  responsibility  of  introducing  boys  and  girls  to  new  and  richer 
fields  of  subject  matter,  of  helping  them  to  find  their  special  powers  and 
capacities,  and  of  directing  them  wisely  into  the  differentiated  curricula 
of  the  senior  high  school,  or,  upon  occasion,  of  preparing  them  for  imme- 
diate entrance  into  vocations. 

The  success  of  a  junior  high  school  in  meeting  adequately  the  needs 
of  its  constituency  depends  directly  upon  the  extent  to  which  these  needs 
are  recognized  and  provided  for  in  the  total  school  organization  and 
particularly  in  the  organization  and  administration  of  the  program  of 
studies. 

UNDERLYING  STANDARDS  AND  PRINCIPLES 

The  following  standards  for  program,  curricula,  and  courses  represent 
the  consensus  of  opinion  of  recognized  authorities  who  are  dealing  with 
the  reorganization  of  secondary  education  from  the  standpoint  of  both 
theory  and  practice. 

A.    SCOPE  OR  CONTENT  OF  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES. 

The  program  of  studies  should  contain,  within  reasonable  limits : 

1.    A  continuation  of  the  fundamentals  of  knowledge  and  skill  necessary  for 

intelligent  participation  in  everyday  life.     This  includes  especially  the  speech  and. 

language  arts  and  mathematics. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 17 

2.  A  large  body  of  knowledge,  ideals,  and  attitudes  which  must  be  possessed 
by  all  in  common  as  the  basis  of  cooperative  membership  in  a  democratic  society. 
This   makes   for  a  certain   desirable   likemindedness  and  prevents   the   danger   of 
"curriculum  castes."     Here  are  included  literature,  social  science,  and  elementary 
science. 

3.  New  and  enriched  courses  which  will  open  up  to  the  adolescent  the  great 
fields  of  human  achievement  as  found  in  languages,  literature,  history,  science  and 
invention,  and  the  fine  and  applied  arts.     In  this  way  only  is  it  possible  to  reveal 
the  major  lines  of  thought  and  action  in  which  the  pupil  must  later  find  a  place, 
and  to  insure  experiences  which  will  influence  later  leisure  time  activities. 

4.  Adequate  provision  for  health,   interesting  physical  exercise,  and  personal 
and  social  hygiene. 

5.  Occupational  studies  and  some  prevocational  experience  or  vocational  con- 
tacts.     In   the   larger  centers,    a  certain  amount  of  vocational   training  is   also 
necessary  for  specific  groups.     No  subject  matter  should  be  included  in  any  course 
which  does  not  contribute  to  the  educational  objectives  already  mentioned. 

B.  ORGANIZATION  OF  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES. 

The  program  of  studies  should  be  organized  to  provide: 

1.  That  every  pupil  shall  take  certain  subject  matter  constants,  including  the 
fundamentals  and  the  common  integrating  courses  mentioned  in  A,  1  and  2,  and 
the  health  work  and  some  of  the  occupational  work  in  A,  4  and  5. 

2.  That  every  pupil  have  some  contacts,   if  only  for  exploratory  and  testing 
purposes,   with  the  fine  or  applied  arts  and  with  vocations.     The  extent  of  the 
latter   will   naturally   be    determined   by   the.  nature    of   the    community   and   the 
resources  of  the  school.     In  industrial  communities,  early  leaving  groups  may  be 
given  considerable  preparation  for  vocations. 

3.  That  at  least  by  the  last  year  of  the  junior  high  school  the  pupils  may  be 
separated   into   broadly   differentiated   curriculum   groups,    on    the   basis   of   their 
ascertained  interests,  abilities,  and  probable  futures. 

4.  That  there  is  sufficient  flexibility  in  the  program  of  individual  students  to 
permit  the  adjustment  of  work  to  their  capacities.     The  weaker  students  should 
be  considered  to  have  completed  the  junior  high  school  curriculum  upon  meeting 
specified  minimum  requirements. 

5.  That  the  more  capable  students  may  carry  heavier  programs,  as  through 
the  addition  of  a  foreign  language  in  the  seventh  grade  or  an  extra  subject-  in  the 
ninth,  thus  earning  credits  to  apply  in  the  senior  high  school. 

6.  That  the  content  and  organization  of  courses  in  the  first  and  last  years  of 
the  junior  high  school  articulate  closely  enough  with  the  work  of  the  sixth  and 
tenth  grades  respectively  to  make  the  transition  from  school  to  school  an  easy  one. 

C.  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES. 

Efficiency  and  economy  in  achieving  the  ends  of  the  junior  high  school 
through  the  administration  of  the  program  demand: 

1.  Non-academic  entrance  requirements  for  over-age  pupils  of  the  sixth  grade. 
While  the  great  majority  of  pupils  complete  this  grade  satisfactorily,  admission 
to  the  seventh  grade  should  not  be  denied  to  retarded  pupils  who  are  misfits  in 
the  lower  grade  and  who  may  profit  by  the  work  of  the  junior  high  school. 

2.  Flexible  promotion,  as  far  as  consistent  with  the  resources  of  the  school. 
This  may  be   achieved   by   subject   instead   of^rade  promotion   or  by  advancing 
pupils  as  rapidly  as  they  show  ability  to  perform  the  work  of  the  higher  class 
or  grade. 

3.  An    evaluation    in    terms   of    senior   high   school    credits    of    such    work   of 
advanced  nature  as  may  be  done  in  the  junior  high  school.     This  includes  foreign 
language,  and  additional  ninth  grade  subjects  particularly,  but  may  also  include 
beginning  science  or  comjnercial  work. 

4.  Grouping  of  students  with  reference  to  powers,  as  in  sections  of  a  subject, 
or  with  respect  to  sex  in  such  subjects  as  vocational  study,  hygiene,  or  science. 

5.  Opportunity    for    study    of    individual    students,    and    for    conference    and 
guidance  by  teachers  assigned  these  responsibilities. 

6.  Realization  and  practice,  by  supervisors  and  teachers,  of  the  principle  that 
the  work  of  the  junior  high  school  is  not  only  to  secure  definite  results  in  knowl- 
edge and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  but  also  to  reveal  to  them  the  scope  and 
richness  of  human  achievement,  and  at  the  same  time  to  determine  their  latent 
powers  and  aptitudes,  that  later  choices  and  determinations  may  be  wisely  made. 


18 


COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 


The  planning  and  operating  a  junior  high  school  program  of  studies 
which  will  meet  the  above  standards  gives  rise  to  many  problems. 
Obviously,  due  to  the  individual  characteristics  of  their  communities,  all 
schools  will  not  meet  these  standards  to  the  same  extent.  Schools  in  the 
smaller  towns  and  villages  will  be  limited  in  the  range  of  courses  offered, 
and  in  the  organization  and  administration  of  these  courses.  Schools  in 
the  larger  cities  may  offer  more  elective  courses,  especially  of  the  voca- 
tional sort,  and  will  have  better  opportunities  for  effective  classification 
and  promotion  systems. 

It  is  also  true  that  a  small  school  with  single  section  classes  and  with 
little  flexibility  in  the  program  but  with  a  staff  who  are  enthusiastic 
over  the  possibilities  of  the  reorganization  movement  will  render  better 
service  to  adolescents  than  will  a  larger  school  in  which  every  condition 
is  propitious,  but  in  which  the  spirit  of  the  junior  high  school  is  lacking. 

TYPICAL  PROGRAMS 

Various  practices  in  program  building  are  illustrated  in  the  following 
typical  programs: 

Table  I.    PROGRAM  RECOMMENDED  FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  OP  OHIO.* 


Grades 

Seven 

Eight 

Nine 

Required 
for  all 

English    

5 

5 

5 

15 

Social    studies   . 

5 

4 

3 

12 

Elementary   science 

3 

5 

5 

Mathematics     

5 

4 

3 

9 

Physical  education  

2 

2 

2 

)  ln 

Hygiene 

2 

2 

2 

;  10 

Occupational  studies   

5 

10 

10 

Latin,  French  or  Spanish  
Manual  arts            . 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

Household  arts 

5 

5 

5 

Drawing 

2 

3 

3 

Music 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Commercial              

5 

5 

Normal  periods  per  week  

30 

30 

30 

53 

The  above  program  is  planned  to  give  each  pupil  normally  thirty  class 
periods  of  work  weekly,  or  thirty  units  yearly  for  three  years,  making  a 
total  of  ninety  units.  (Unit  meaning  one  recitation  period  per  week 
throughout  the  year.)  Twenty-five  units  yearly  is  the  minimum  for 
approval  by  the  state  department. 

Of  the  normal  total  of  ninety  units,  fifty-three  are  required  of  all 
students,  preferably  at  the  specified  times.  (See  bold  type).  By  years, 
the  required  units  are  twenty,  eighteen,  and  fifteen  respectively,  thus 
allowing  progressively  for  individual  choice  and  differentiation.  The 
remaining  thirty-seven  are  to  be  taken  in  optional  subjects  as  indicated 
or  in  further  work  in  the  required  subjects.  Optional  work  is  to  be 
offered  by  various  schools  in  accordance  with  their  respective  resources. 
The  larger  schools  of  Ohio  have  built  up  very  effective  programs  around 
the  suggested  core,  especially  in  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  and  Columbus. 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  program  meets  practically  all  the  above 
standards  regarding  the  program  of  studies.  The  same  general  plan  is 
in  vogue  in  Indiana. 


*  The  Junior  High  School,  Ohio  State  Department  of  Education. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


19 


Table  2.    PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  FOR  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS  OF  DETROIT,  IN 
GO-MINUTE  HOURS  OF  INSTRUCTION  PER  WEEK.* 


- 

Seventh  grade 

Eighth  grade 

Ninth  grade 

B 

A 

Gen'l 

Technical 

Com'l 

Gen'l 

Technical 

Com'l 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

Health     

5 
5 
5 
4 
3 
2 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 

5 

Social   Science  

Mathematics 

4 

2 
•    2 

3 

2 
2 

3 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

3 

2 
2 

3 

2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

"2 
2 

General  Science    .... 

Auditorium  .'  

Art  and  Design  

1 

1 

1 
5 
1 
1 

1 

2 

1 

1 
5 

1 

1 

.... 

2 

1 

Foreign   Language 

Cooking   (Girls)        

2 
2 

3 
3 

3 
3 
1 

1 
1 

3 
3 
1 

5 
1 
2 
2 

Sewing   (Girls) 

Household  Sci.  (Girls) 
Shops    (Boys) 

3 
1 

5 
1 

1 

1 

6 

2 

1 
1 

\ 

1 

Mech.  Drawing  (Boys) 
Bookkeeping 

Business  Practice  

5 

Statistics              

Typewriting  

1 

t  Totals   .. 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

An  examination  of  the  Detroit  program  shows  a  slightly  different 
application  of  the  standards.  A  large  amount  of  subject  matter  in  the 
traditional  subjects  and  in  music  and  art  is  given  to  all  students  in 
common.  In  the  seventh  grade  all  work  is  prescribed,  covering  a  wide 
range  of  experiences.  In  the  eighth  grade  broadly  differentiated  curricula 
are  begun,  each  consisting  of  prescribed  work,  with  no  electives  other 
than  in  vocational  subjects.  In  addition  to  the  program  outlined,  three 
years  of  work  in  an  industrial  curriculum  are  offered  during  grades 
seven,  eight,  and  nine  under  provision  of  the  Smith-Hughes  law. 

Guidance  of  pupils  into  curriculum  groups  in  the  eighth  grade  is 
based  upon  work  done  in  the  seventh  grade  and  upon  studies  of  individual 
students  by  the  educational  and  vocational  counselor.  The  distribution  of 
the  pupil's  time  between  health,  social  sciences,  exact  sciences,  language, 
vocational  work,  and  fine  arts  is  especially  good.  A  wide  range  of  voca- 
tional work  is  offered  in  the  shop  and  home  economics  curriculum,  as  is 
desirable  in  a  large  industrial  city. 


*  The  Intermediate  School  in  Detroit,  p.   13. 

t  Totals  corrected  for  inclusion  in  column  of  both  boys'  and  girls'  special  work. 


20 


Tables.  TYPICAL  PROGRAM  FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  OP  MASSACHUSETTS.* 


Grade  7 

Grade  8 

Grade  9 

English   

5 

5 

5 

Library  

f  1 

f  1 

fl 

Social  studies  

5L 

5{, 

5i< 

Mathematics        

f  3 

f3 

ra 

Science    

5 
[2 

5 

1.2 

5 

[2 

Foreign  language 

("  0  or  3 

1"  0  or  4 

f  0  or  4 

Practical  arts 

3  or  6 

0  or  2  or  6 

0  or  2  or  6  or  & 

Fine  arts       

10 
2 

10 
2  or  4 

10 
0  or  2  or  4 

Physical  training  

2 

2 

2 

25 

25 

25 

This  program  assumes  twenty-five  class  periods  per  week  for  each 
pupil,  and  in  addition  a  weekly  assembly  ^period,  a  weekly  period  for 
organizations,  and  daily  setting-up  exercises.  The  plan  provides  for 
constants  and  for  some  exploratory  work  by  the  student.  Curricula  are 
not  differentiated  but  there  is  a  modification  of  the  work  in  mathematics 
to  meet  the  needs  of  different  groups,  and  there  is  much  opportunity  for 
choice  in  foreign  language,  practical  arts,  and  fine  arts. 

The  above  and  other  representative  junior  high  school  programs, 
illustrating  somewhat  varying  applications  of  the  principles  of  program 
making,  have  many  suggestions  for  such  schools  in  Oregon.  The  Ohio  and 
Massachusetts  manuals  will  repay  careful  reading  and  the  bulletin  of  the 
University  of  Oregon  high  school  has  many  points  of  interest,  especially 
for  those  who  are  planning  for  schools  in  the  smaller  communities. 

On  the  basis  of  the  principles  enumerated  in  this  section,  and  with 
due  consideration  of  the  needs  of  the  various  communities  of  the  state, 
the  following  program  of  studies  is  proposed  as  a  standard  for  junior 
high  schools  in  Oregon.  No  attempt  is  made  to  embody  the  more  radical 
departures  in  program  making,  nor  to  break  away  suddenly  from  the 
usual  subject  matter  of  the  grades  in  question.  Direct  reference  is  made, 
however,  to  the  aims  and  functions  of  education  during  the  junior  high 
school  period,  and  it  is  urged  that  they  be  duly  emphasized  in  administer- 
ing the  proposed  program. 

*  Junior  High  School  Manual,  Massachusetts  Department  of  Education,  p.  25. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


21 


SUGGESTED  PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES  FOR  JUNIOR 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  OREGON 


Min.  per 
week  of 
teaching 

No.  of  periods  per  week 

Length 

45  inin. 

Length 
60  min. 

REQUIRED  — 

English 

180 
150 
150 
120 
120 
180 

130 

130 

150 
110 
110 

6 
5 
5 
4 
3 
4 

3 
3 

5 

2% 
2% 
24 
27 

5 
4 
4 
3 
2 
3 

~       2 
2 

4 
2 
2 
19 
21 

History 

Mathematics 

Geography         ....    •          

Physical  Training       

*Prevocational   

LIMITED  ELECTIVES   (Choose  one)  — 
Art        ....               

Music        

ELECTIVES— 
French 

Music        

Art        

•(•Constants    . 

fRequired    .    

EIGHTH  GRADE 


Min.  per 
week  of 
teaching 

No.  of  periods  per  week 

Length 
45  min. 

Length 
60  min. 

REQUIRED— 
English         

150 
150 
150 
150 
100 

150 
90 

130 
130 

180 

5 
5 
5 
5 

5 
3 

3 
3 

4 
20 
23 

4 
4 
4 
4 

4 
2 

2 
2 
3 
16 
18 

History 

Mathematics 

Elementary    Science        

Physical    training 

LIMITED  ELECTIVES    (Choose  one)  — 
French                 

Business  English        .       

ELECTIVES  — 
Music    

Art         

*  Pre  vocational 

tConstants                          .        -.  .              

tRequired    

NINTH  GRADE 


Min.  per 
week  of 
teaching 

No.  of  periods  per  week 

Length 
45  min. 

Length 
60  min. 

REQUIRED  — 
English        

150 
150 
100 

150 
150 

150 
150 
150 
110 
110 
180 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 
5 
2V2 

i* 

10 
20 

5 
5 

5 
5 

5 
5 
5 
2 
2 
3 
10 
20 

Biology 

Physical  Training 

LIMITED  ELECTIVES    (Choose  one)  — 
European  History           

Civics        .                    

ELECTIVES   (One  or  two).... 
French 

Latin 

Mathematics                  

Music                 

Art         

*  Pre  vocational 

•^Constants    

tReauired    . 

*  Shop  work  for  boys,  household  arts  for  girls, 
t  Exclusive  of  physical  training. 


22 


EXPLANATION  OF  PROGRAM. 

The  program  suggested  is  by  no  means  a  final  one.  It  is  planned  with 
present  conditions  in  Oregon  in  mind  and  it  should  be  regarded  rather  as 
tentative  and  as  a  beginning  in  the  direction  of  desirable  changes.  It 
must  be  subjected  to  later  modifications  as  needed  in  accordance  with 
progressive  developments  in  the  reorganization  of  secondary  education. 
It  is  presented  as  a  workable  plan  for  cities  and  villages  of  Oregon  which 
are  interested  in  promoting  the  junior  high  school.  In  its  simplest  form, 
it  can  be  carried  out  in  many  communities.  It  can  also  be  expanded  for 
schools  in  the  larger  cities,  in  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  special  pupil 
groups. 

Certain  features  of  the  program  as  outlined  are  noteworthy.  Briefly 
stated,  they  are:  A  large  amount  of  integrating  education  in  the  form 
of  constants  or  required  subjects  each  year;  exploratory  courses;  limited 
and  free  electives;  continuous  instruction  in  certain  valuable  "cores"; 
varying  amount  of  work  for  pupils  of  unequal  abilities;  and  slight  dif- 
ferentiation of  curricula.  These  features  will  become  apparent  in  the 
following  explanation  of  the  work  for  each  grade: 

Grade  Seven.  The  constants  for  this  year  are  English,  history,  mathe- 
matics, geography,  physical  training,  and  prevocational  work.  These, 
with  one  limited  elective,  either  art  or  music,  form  the  minimum  for  any 
normal  pupil.  More  capable  pupils  may  add  the  other  limited  elective, 
or  French,  or  both,  thus  providing  to  an  extent  for  varying  capacities  and 
interests. 

The  first  five  of  the  required  subjects  are  self-explanatory.  The 
prevocational  work  is  included  because  of  the  knowledge  and  skill  devel- 
oped and  because  every  pupil  should  have  some  contacts  with  elementary 
form  of  occupational  life.  It  serves  as  an  exploratory  or  "try  out"  course 
for  many  pupils.  Every  school  should  provide  work  in  art  and  music. 
Some  training  in  appreciation  of  art  and  music  is  an  essential  in  any 
plan  of  complete  education.  The  courses  are  exploratory  for  many  pupils. 
French  should  be  elected  by  the  stronger  students,  especially  those  who 
wish  to  earn  credit  to  apply  toward  senior  high  school  graduation. 

Grade  Eight.  English,  history,  mathematics,  elementary  science,  and 
physical  education  are  the  constants  for  this  grade.  Each  pupil  must 
also  take  one  other  subject,  either  French  continued,  or  an  additional 
course  in  English,  e.  g.,  business  English.  Word  study  is  suggested  as  a 
possible  substitute  for  business  English.  All  pupils  not  taking  French 
in  the  seventh  grade,  or  who  were  found  by  trial  to  be  unfitted  for  foreign 
language  study,  should  be  held  for  the  English  requirement.  French 
must  be  continued  through  this  year  if  any  high  school  credit  is  to  be 
awarded.  One  high  school  unit  is  allowed  for  the  two  years  of  French. 
The  electives  for  this  year  are  art,  music,  and  prevocational  work.  All 
pupils  who  showed  ability  in  the  "try  out"  courses  in  the  preceding  year 
should  be  encouraged  to  elect  one  or  more  of  these  courses  in  the  eighth 
grade.  Some  schools  may  desire  to  offer  additional  electives,  which  will 
meet  other  needs  of  special  groups,  e.  g.,  those  who  will  likely  leave  school 
before  high  school  graduation. 

Little  differentiation  is  provided  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  as 
these  two  years  are  particularly  valuable  for  integrating  and  exploratory 
courses  which  all  pupils  should  have. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 23 

Grade  Nine.  Three  constants  are  presented  for  this  grade;  namely, 
English,  biology,  and  physical  training.  Each  pupil  will  also  select  one 
subject  in  the  social  science  field,  choosing  either  history  of  Europe  or 
economic  and  vocational  civics,  and  will  add  one  or  more  subjects  from 
the  list  of  free  electives.  Economic  and  vocational  civics  is  offered  as  a 
very  desirable  course  for  those  who  do  not  anticipate  completion  of  the 
senior  high  school.  The  electives  suggested  for  this  year  are  French 
(third  year),  Latin  (beginning),  mathematics,*  prevocational  work,  art, 
and  music.  Others  may  be  added  according  to  the  needs  of  the  school,  or 
the  amount  of  work  in  the  prevocational  course  or  in  art  or  music  may  be 
increased. 

No  strictly  vocational  work  is  suggested  for  the  ninth  grade.  Experi- 
ence has  shown  that  the  vocational  value  of  "vocational"  subjects  below 
the  tenth  grade  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the  giving  of  such  courses. 
It  may  be  desirable  in  some  cases,  of  course,  to  make  special  provisions 
for  mature  but  retarded  pupils  who  obviously  will  soon  leave  the  school. 
This  excellent  service,  however,  ordinarily  can  be  provided  only  in  the 
larger  cities. 

At  the  end  of  the  ninth  grade,  the  normal  pupil  will  have  completed 
cycles  of  three  years  each  in  English,  social  sciences,  and  geography  and 
natural  science.  He  will  have  had  two  or  three  years  in  mathematics, 
and  will  have  had  some  prevocational  contacts,  as  well  as  some  work  in 
the  field  of  aesthetics.  The  stronger  pupils  will  have  had  additional  work 
in  French  or  in  other  elective  subjects.  Each  pupil  will  have  had  oppor- 
tunities to  become  acquainted  with  various  fields  of  subject  matter  and 
to  determine  somewhat  his  special  interests  and  powers.  Pupil  groups 
will  be  but  slightly  differentiated,  yet  all  should  be  in  position  to  make 
intelligent  elections  among  the  various  curricula  of  the  senior  high  school. 

As  indicated  above,  all  junior  high  schools  need  not  confine  their 
offerings  strictly  to  the  suggested  program.  While  the  required  subjects 
shoiAl  be  included  as  indicated,  and  the  principle  of  limited  electives 
shdtfld  be  observed,  some  schools  will  wish  to  extend  the  electives,  or  to 
rovide  more  definitely  for  special  groups,  and  others  may  not  find  it 
e  to  offer  all  the  indicated  electives.  The  characteristics  of  the 
individual  communities  will  obviously  determine  the  extent  of  these 
variations. 


*  If  correlated   mathematics   is  offered   during  the   three   years,    this  subject 
must  be  required  in  the  ninth  grade. 


24 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

THE  PROGRAM  BY  SUBJECTS 

ENGLISH 

English  in  the  junior  high  school  should  be  so  taught  as  to  result  in 
increased  accuracy,  fluency,  and  effectiveness  in  writing  and  speaking, 
which  includes  correct  grammatical  form  and  spelling,  increased  vocab- 
ulary, and  much  practice  in  writing  and  speaking.  It  should  above  all 
instil  the  desire  to  speak  and  write  correct  and  effective  English.  It 
should  without  fail  serve  to  instil  the  desire  to  read  stories  and  books 
which  are  harmless,  inspiring,  and  informational.  It  should  give  an 
acquaintance  with  the  best  authors,  English  and  American,  past  and 
present,  particularly  the  latter,  who  have  written  material  suitable  for 
the  junior  high  school  age. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Grammar  and  composition  (one-half) 

Text.    Oral  and  Written   English,   Book   II,   Potter,   Jeschke   and  Gillette. 
Ginn  &  Co. 

First  semester,  chapters  I,  II,  III,  and  IV. 
Second  semester,  chapters  V  and  VI. 
Literature  (one-half) 

Class  study  of  several  short  stories,  one  or  two  longer  prose  narra- 
tives or  narrative  poems,  Lamb's  Tales  or  one  simple  drama,  and  a 
number  of  short  memory  units,  chiefly  poems  or  selections. 
Outside  reading  for  harmless  enjoyment  of  short  stories  and  books 
involving  natural  history,  invention,  biography,  travel,  light  adven- 
ture, and  newspapers.  Individual  differences  in  interests  and 
abilities  must  be  recognized  here. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Grammar  and  composition  (three- fifths) 

Text :    Oral  and  Written  English,    Book  II,   Potter,  Jeschke   and  Gillette. 

Ginn  &  Co. 

First  semester,  chapters  VII,  VIII,  and  IX. 

Second  semester,  chapters  X  and  XII. 
Literature   (two-fifths) 

Reading  in  class  of  such  stories  as  Poe's  detective  tales  and  of 
patriotic  material,  including  Kale's  "The  Man  Without  a  Country," 
Andrew's  "The  Perfect  Tribute,"  and  "The  Gettysburg  Speech." 
As  a  part  of  such  reading,  memory  work  of  a  patriotic  character 
is  done,  e.  g.,  "Breathes  There  a  Man,"  "Captain!  My  Captain!" 
and  Stedman's  "Abraham  Lincoln."  For  more  concentrated  work, 
one  of  Scott's  long  narrative  poems  and  one  Shakespearian  drama 
suited  to  junior  interests,  e.  g.,  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  or 
Merchant  of  Venice,  are  used.  Outside  reading  for  harmless 
enjoyment  should  be  given  attention. 

NINTH  GRADE. 

Grammar  and  composition  (two-thirds) 

Text:    Sentence  and  Th^me,  Ward.    Scott,  Forrsman  &  Co. 

Selected  material   omitting  portions  less   likely   to   function,    e.    g., 
abstract  distinctions  among  verbals. 
Literature  (one- third) 

Introduction  to  structure  in  connection  with  the  short  story,  using 
any  good  selection  of  standard  short  stories,  Julius  Caesar,  a  Scott 
narrative  poem,  or  the  novel  Ivanhoe.  Continued  outside  reading 
for  harmless  enjoyment. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 25 

HISTORY  AND  SOCIAL  SCIENCE 

Teachers  of  history  in  the  junior  high  school  should  keep  in  mind,  in 
addition  to  the  more  obvious  purposes  of  history — the  acquiring  of 
information  concerning  and  appreciation  of  the  past — the  necessity  of 
training  pupils  in  methods  of  studying  history,  of  developing  desirable 
attitudes  toward  human  welfare  and  the  institutions  of  society,  and  the 
desirability  of  teaching  history  somewhat  as  a  general  social  science, 
emphasizing  correlations  with  and  between  present  and  past  political, 
sociological  and  economic  problems  and  situations. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

United  States  History 

Text :    History  of  the  American  People,  Beard  and  Bagley.    The  Macmillan 
Company.     Chapters  1  to  22  inclusive. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

United  States  History — First  semester 

Text :    History  of  the  American  People,  completed. 
Civics — Second  semester 

Text:    Community  Civics,  Hughes.     Allyn  &  Bacon.     (See  State  Course  of 
Study  for  Elementary  Grades.)    Completed. 

NINTH  GRADE.    Two  alternative  years  of  work: 

A.  History 

Text :    History  of  Europe,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval,  Breasted  and  Robinson. 
Ginn  &  Co.     Completed. 

B.  Elementary  Social  Science 

Text :    Economic    Civics,    Hughes.      Allyn    &    Bacon.      Completed.      First 
semester. 
Vocational  Civics,  Giles.  Macmillan  Co.  Completed.  Second  semester. 

Supplementary  readings  for  vocational  civics: 
Boys — 

1.  Starting  in  Life,  Fowler. 

2.  How  to  Get  and  How  to  Keep  a  Job,  Fowler. 

3.  Profitable  Vocations  for  Boys,  Weaver. 

4.  The  Exceptional  Employee,  Marden. 

5.  Choosing  a  Career,  Marden. 

6.  Occupations,  Gowin  &  Wheatley. 
Girls — 

1.  The  Girl  Who  Earns  Her  Own  Living,  Richardson. 

2.  Profitable  Vocations  for  Girls,  Weaver. 

3.  Occupations  for  Girls,  Laselle  &  Wiley. 

MATHEMATICS 

Two  plans  for  mathematics  in  the  junior  high  school  may  be  followed. 
PLAN  I — CORRELATED  MATHEMATICS. 

The  most  prominent  tendencies  in  junior  high  school  mathematics 
seem  very  clearly  to  be:* 

1.  To  correlate  and   interrelate   arithmetic,    algebra,   intuitive   geometry,   and 
the  simplest  phases  of  trigonometry  and  statistics. 

2.  To  place  the  most  difficult  phases  of  arithmetic  and  those  best  adapted  to 
maturity  of  mind  and  interest,  e.  g.,  taxes,  insurance,  banking,  later  in  the  course 
of  study  than  heretofore. 


*  See  "Curricula  and  Method  in  Junior  High  School  Mathematics,"  Schorling,  Raleigh 
and  Clark,  J.  R.,  The  Mathematics  Teacher,  May,  1921. 


26 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

3.  To   introduce  the   formal   mechanical   phases  of  algebra  as   early  as  the 
seventh  grade. 

4.  To   emphasize   the    practical  .application   of   mathematics    to   home,    play, 
business,  government,  farm  and  industry. 

The  following  course  is  planned  with  the  above  considerations  in  mind : 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Text :  Junior  High  School  Mathematics,  Lindquist.  Scribners.  Book  I. 
Completed. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Text :  Junior  High  School  Mathematics,  Lindquist.  Scribners.  Book  II. 
Completed. 

NINTH  GRADE. 

Text :    Junior  High  School  Mathematics,  Lindquist.     Scribners.     Book  III. 
Completed.     (27  weeks) 
Review  of  algebra.     (9  weeks) 

PLAN  II. 

The  alternative  plan  is  that  outlined  in  the  state  elementary  course 
of  study  in  arithmetic  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and  in  algebra 
for  the  first  year  of  high  school. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Text :  Essentials  of  Arithmetic,  Hamilton.  American  Book  Co.  Chapters 
III  and  IV. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Text :  Essentials  of  Arithmetic,  Hamilton.  American  Book  Co.  Chapters 
V  and  VI.  Omit  pages  313-331 ;  384-393. 

NINTH  GRADE. 

Text :    General  Mathematics,   Schorling  and  Reeve.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Minimum :     Chapters  1  to  16  inclusive. 

Where  Plan  I  is  used,  all  three  years  of  mathematics  should  be  re- 
quired. Under  Plan  II  only  the  first  two  years  should  be  required  of  all 
students. 

GEOGRAPHY 

The  year  of  geography  should  complete  the  two-year  cycle  begun  in  the 
sixth  grade.  It  is  recommended  that  the  state  course  of  study  for  elemen- 
tary schools  for  seventh-grade  geography  be  followed,  or  approximated. 

Text:  Advanced  Geography,  McMurry  and  Parkins.  The  Macmillan  Co. 
First  semester,  complete  Parts  II,  III,  and  IV,  to  eastern  Europe. 
Second  semester,  complete  text  with  review  of  geography  of  Oregon. 

SCIENCE 

The  natural  science  of  the  junior  high  school  should  be  organized  and 
taught  with  reference  to  human  problems,  the  solution  of  which  involve 
the  material  of  science.  Data  from  the  various  sciences — physics,  geog- 
raphy, biology,  bacteriology,  astronomy,  geology,  chemistry — should  be 
available  in  books  and  from  experimentation  and  should  be  introduced  in 
this  year. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 27 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Elementary  Science 

Text :    The  Science  of  Everyday  Life,   Van  Buskirk  &  Smith.     Houghton 
Mifflin  Company. 
First  semester,  Part  I. 
Second  semester,  Part  II. 
Valuable   collateral   references : 

Everyday  Science,   Snyder.     American  Book  Co. 

Elementary  General  Science,  Hodgdon.  Hinds,  Hayden  and  Eldridge. 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Science,  Smith  &  Jewett.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company. 

Science  of  Home  and  Community,  Trafton.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 

NINTH  GRADE. 

Biology 

Text :    Civic   Biology,    Hunter.      American    Book   Co.      Completed  as   out- 
lined in  Course  of  Study  for  High  Schools  of  Oregon,  p.  77. 
Collateral  references : 

Civic  Biology,  Hodge  and  Dawson.     Ginn  &  Co. 
Elementary  Biology,  Gruenberg.     Ginn  &  Co. 

FRENCH 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 
First  semester 

Text :    Mes  Premiers  pas  en  Francais.     D.   C.  Heath  Co. 

Twenty-five  lessons,  using  modified  direct  methods,  based  on  text 
and  appendix. 

Present  tenses  of  regular  conjugations  as  avoir,  etre,  aller,  venir, 
faire,  vouloir,  and  pouvoir. 
Second  semester 

Complete  text.    Dictation  and  composition.    Indicative  tenses  of  all 
regular  verbs  and  about  twenty-five  most  common  irregular  verbs. 
Verb  notebook  suggested. 
Supplementary  reader : 

Capus,  Pour  charmer  nos  petits.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Outside  readings  from  selected  primers  and  stories. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Text:    Chardenal's  Complete  French  Course.    Allyn  &  Bacon.    1920  edition. 
First  semester 

Lessons   1-75.     Grammar  with  verb  review   and  study  based  on 

text.    Composition  and  dictation.    Full  verb  paradigms  for  regular 

and  auxiliary  verbs,  and  fifteen  irregular  verbs. 

Supplementary  reader : 

Contes  et  Legendes,  Guerber.     American  Book  Co. 
Reading  as  basis  for  conversation.     Selected  outside  reading. 
Second  semester 

Complete  Chardenal  and  read  Contes  et  Legendes,  Part  2,  or  His- 

toire  de  France,  Lavisse.     D.  C.  Heath  Co. 

Additional  work  with  verbs  and  outside  reading,  composition  and 

dictation  continued. 

NINTH  GRADE. 

Through  review  of  grammar,  conversation,  and  composition.    Selected 
readings  such  as: 

French  Life,  Allen  &  Schoell.     Henry  Holt. 

Histoire  de  la  France,  Lavisse.     D.  C.  Heath. 

La  France  Nouvelle,  Talbot.    Benj.  Sanborn. 

Bruno  Le  Tour  de  la  France.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 

Stories  from  Malot,  Mairet,   Lemaitre,  Bement. 


28 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

LATIN 
NINTH  GRADE. 
First  semester 

Text :    Elementary  Latin,  Smith.     Allyn  &  Bacon.     Lessons  1-53  Minimum,. 

1-47. 
Second  semester 

Complete  and  review  text.  Supplementary  reading  from  Reynold's 
Latin  Reader.  D.  C.  Heath  Co.  Outside  reading  for  advanced 
pupils  from  selected  list. 

PREVOCATIONAL  SHOP  WORK 

The  shop  work  of  the  junior  high  school  should,  with  possible  excep- 
tions already  noted  (see  Explanation  of  Program  of  Studies),  be  pre- 
dominantly prevocational  in  nature.  It  should  seek  to  give  the  pupils 
considerable  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  tools  and  of  materials,  acquaint 
them  with  the  nature  and  possibilities  of  various  vocations,  and,  of 
greatest  importance,  give  them  opportunities  to  develop  interests  and 
explore  their  aptitudes  or  inaptitudes  for  various  types  of  industrial 
work. 

The  plan  for  prevocational  work  outlined  in  the  State  Course  of  Study 
for  High  Schools  (pages  97-101)  should  be  followed,  with  such  modifica- 
tions as  may  be  demanded  by  the  smaller  time-allotment  for  this  work. 
The  general  or  "composite"  shop  which  is  demanded  for  projects  in  pre- 
vocational work  gives  many  more  opportunities  for  exploration  through 
practical  experience  than  does  the  single  type  shop  which  is  generally  in 
vogue,  and  meets  the  varied  needs  of  junior  high  school  pupils  much  more 
satisfactorily.  The  equipment  for  the  several  types  of  work  offered  need 
not  be  elaborate,  but  should  be  adequate  for  simple  projects,  and  should 
represent  the  significant  processes  in  each  occupation  studied. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Since  shop  work  is  required  in  this  grade  only,  the  pupils  should 
complete  projects  in  four  or  more  types  of  work  selected  from  the  state 
course  and  representative  of  the  industrial  interests  of  the  community, 
spending  from  six  to  nine  weeks  on  each  type. 

Drawing,  woodwork,  printing,  sheet  metal  work,  electrical  repair  and 
installation,  wood  turning,  painting,  and  machine  shop  are  desirable  types. 
In  certain  localities,  work  in  elementary  practical  agriculture  may  well 
be  included.  Special  efforts  should  be  made  during  this  grade  to  give  the 
pupils  as  many  practical  experiences  as  possible,  to  arouse  their  interests 
in  occupations,  and  to  help  them  to  find  their  special  vocational  abilities. 
EIGHTH  AND  NINTH  GRADES. 

While  shop  work  is  elective  in  these  grades,  if  the  "sampling"  of  the 
preceding  grade  has  been  carefully  handled,  a  large  number  of  pupils 
should  continue  with  shop  projects.  During  these  years,  the  pupils  will 
become  familiar  with  such  additional  types  of  work  as  may  be  offered, 
and  should  work  for  longer  periods  and  more  intensively  upon  their 
projects. 

Any  students  who  manifest  special  aptitudes  for  certain  types  of  work, 
or  who  will  undoubtedly  become  wage  earners  on  the  completion  of  the 
junior  high  school,  should  be  given  opportunities  for  shop  practice  in- 
addition  to  the  number  of  hours  indicated  above. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 29 

HOUSEHOLD  ARTS 

The  work  in  household  arts  should  be  planned  for  two  classes  of 
girls.  Courses  in  sewing  or  cooking  should  be  begun  not  later  than  the 
seventh  grade  for  the  benefit  of  those  girls  who  will  not  remain  much 
longer  in  school  and  for  the  encouragement  of  those  whose  talents  are 
obviously  not  in  the  direction  of  "book"  subjects.  It  must  also  be  so 
taught  as  to  be  usable  as  a  foundation  for  further  courses  in  home 
economics  for  those  who  continue  into  the  senior  high  school.  The  first 
class  of  girls  particularly  should  be  encouraged  to  complete  the  three- 
year  cycle  in  household  arts  in  the  junior  high  school. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Sewing.  The  work  of  the  first  year  should  be  chiefly  elementary 
sewing  with  opportunities  for  occasional  projects  in  choice  of  food,  cook- 
ing, and  serving.  The  course  mapped  out  for  the  first  year  in  household 
arts  as  it  appears  in  the  Course  of  Study  for  High  Schools  of  Oregon 
(pp.  118-119)  may  be  easily  modified  and  adapted  for  this  year. 

EIGHTH  GRADE. 

Food  Preparation.  Because  of  the  large  amount  of  dropping  out 
through  the  seventh  and  ninth  grades,  some  work  in  food  preparation  and 
purchasing  should  be  given  not  later  than  the  eighth  grade.  The  purpose 
of  this  course  should  not  be  so  much  the  development  of  skill  in  actual 
preparation  of  food  as  the  teaching  of  the  simpler  principles  underlying 
food  selection  and  purchasing,  and  of  menu-planning.  Preservation  of 
foods  should  >be  taught.  The  economic  and  hygienic  phases  should  be 
emphasized,  at  least,  equally,  with  the  technique  of  cooking.  The  latter 
can  be  left  with  less  danger  to  home  teaching  and  practice.  Serving 
should  also  be  taught.  Suitable  topics  may  be  selected  from  the  first- 
year  course  in  household  service  outlined  in  the  Course  of  Study  for  High 
Schools  of  Oregon  (pp.  106-109). 

NINTH  GRADE. 

Housewifery.  The  course  outlined  for  housewifery  in  the  Course  of 
Study  for  High  Schools  of  Oregon  (p.  110)  lends  itself  admirably  to  this 
year's  work.  Supplementary  projects  in  cooking  or  sewing  may  also  be 
provided. 

In  schools  organized  on  the  junior  high  school  plan,  the  elementary 
cycle  in  home  economics  given  in  the  junior  high  school  will  be  followed 
by  a  cycle  of  more  intensive  and  advanced  courses  in  the  senior  high 
school. 

ART  AND  MUSIC 

Until  courses  of  study  in  art  and  music  are  worked  out  with  special 
reference  to  the  junior  high  school,  the  courses  of  study  as  outlined  for 
these  subjects  in  the  Course  of  Study  for  the  Elementary  Grades  of 
Oregon  may  be  followed  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

As  all  pupils  are  expected  to  elect  either  art  or  music  in  the  seventh 
grade,  the  work  for  this  year  should  be  planned  largely  for  exploratory 
purposes,  attempting  to  discover  pupil  abilities  as  well  as  to  arouse 


30 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

interest  in  the  given  field,  although  the  technique  of  production  and 
habits  of  enjoyment  must  not  be  omitted.  In  the  art  classes,  as  far  as 
possible,  projects  should  be  undertaken  in  the  main  fields  of  art,  repre- 
sentation, design,  and  applied  art,  with  emphasis  upon  the  latter,  as  in 
weaving,  pottery,  linoleum  printing,  commercial  poster  work,  and  the  like. 
Much  attention  should  be  given  to  developing  an  appreciation  of  good  art 
in  pictures,  sculpture,  or  wherever  art  may  be  found.  Acquaintance  with 
the  masterpieces  should  be  sought. 

In  music,  in  addition  to  group  singing  or  other  types  of  musical 
production,  considerable  attention  should  be  given  to  developing  apprecia- 
tion of  the  best  music.  The  reproducing  machine  becomes  a  very  valuable 
aid  in  this  work. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  while  some  children  may  eventually 
become  producers  of  art  or  music  all  should  become  consumers  of  good 
art  and  good  music.  Education  for  culture,  education  for  leisure,  educa- 
tion for  citizenship  depend  materially  upon  the  development  of  apprecia- 
tion of  a  common,  integrating,  and  intrinsically  valuable  culture. 

EIGHTH  AND  NINTH  GRADES. 

The  art  work  should  continue,  in  an  advanced  form,  the  representative 
projects  of  the  seventh  grade.  More  attention  may  be  given  to  technique, 
and  a  wider  range  may  be  offered.  The  major  part  of  the  instruction 
in  music  in  these  grades,  and  even  in  the  seventh  grade  also,  may  be 
carried  on  through  the  various  musical  organizations — glee  clubs,  orches- 
tra, or  band.  All  seventh-grade  students  who  show  interest  or  ability 
along  the  lines  of  art  or  music  should  be  strongly  encouraged  to  continue 
work  in  these  fields  through  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  work  in  physical  education  should  be  of  at  least  two  sorts. 

1.  A  number  of  short  periods  of  "loosening  up"  exercises  scattered 
through  the  day  to  reduce  fatigue  of  body  and  attention.     These  may  be 
given   during   the   class   hour   in   the   classroom   either   by   the   regular 
classroom  teacher  or  by  the  instructor  in  physical  education. 

2.  Formal  gymnasium  periods  in  which  (a)  pupils  are  examined  for 
possible  defects  or  tendencies  toward  defects,  and  in  which  prescribed 
corrective  work  is  administered  according  to  individual  needs;  (b)  pupils 
having  no  such  defects  or  tendencies  may  be  given  floor  and  other  work 
calculated    to    make    for    health,    carriage    and    poise,    and    to    provide 
wholesome  pleasure. 

Play  of  all  rational  types,  including  teams  on  a  modest  basis,  should 
be  provided  for,  encouraged,  and  directed.  Group  games  and  mass 
competition  should  be  encouraged. 

Free  medical  and  physical  examination  should  be  provided  on  a 
voluntary  basis  as  a  means  of  discovering  eye,  ear,  nose,  throat,  teeth, 
skin,  and  other  defects  and  diseases  which  may  be  more  easily  corrected 
or  arrested  at  this  time  than  later. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken  to  carefully  safeguard  the  health 
of  girls  through  this  period. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 31 

VII.    ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  PROGRAM 

THE  DAILY  SCHEDULE 

The  approximate  number  of  minutes  per  week  allotted  for  purposes 
of  recitation  and  assignment  or  for  activities  other  than  quiet  study  is 
given  above  for  each  subject  in  each  grade.  Two  plans  for  securing  these 
apportionments  are  suggested  and  the  minimum  number  of  periods 
required  weekly  under  each  plan  is  indicated  for  each  subject.  The  first 
plan  is  based  upon  a  school  day  of  eight  periods  of  forty-five  minutes 
gross  time  each.  The  second  plan  requires  six  daily  periods  of  sixty 
minutes  gross  time  each.  Both  plans  contemplate  the  use  of  considerable 
class  time  for  study,  as  explained  below.  The  eight-period  day  has  the 
advantage  of  greater  flexibility  in  scheduling;  the  six-period  day  permits 
more  attention  to  directed  study. 

Under  the  first  plan,  the  pupil  carrying  only  the  required  work  will 
have,  exclusive  of  physical  education,  a  minimum  of  twenty-seven  class 
periods  in  the  seventh  grade,  twenty-three  or  twenty-five  in  the  eighth, 
and  twenty  in  the  ninth.  As  no  preparation  is  required  in  physical 
training,  prevocational  work,  art,  or  music,  and  in  other  subjects,  part 
of  the  class  period  time  is  reserved  for  study,  the  normal  pupil  should 
find  it  necessary  to  do  little  home  study,  particularly  in  grades  seven 
and  eight.  This  plan  presents  no  serious  difficulties  in  scheduling,  if  the 
teaching  staff  is  adequate  for  the  needs  of  the  school. 

Less  desirable,  although  possible,  is  the  use  of  a  forty-minute  period. 
The  number  of  periods  weekly  for  each  subject  will  remain  the  same  as 
under  the  forty-five  minute  period  plan,  except  that  periods  for  art  and 
music  should  be  increased  sufficiently  to  insure  the  provision  of  the 
indicated'  number  of  minutes  weekly  in  these  subjects  through  the  year. 
More  home  study  also  becomes  necessary.  The  use  of  class  periods  of 
less  than  forty  minutes  gross  time  is  not  desirable  except  in  extreme 
cases,  as  a  short  period  will  almost  invariably  result  in  the  usual  stereo- 
typed "lesson  learning"  type  of  class  exercise.  The  study  hall  also  pre- 
sents a  more  serious  problem  when  the  number  of  periods  is  increased 
and  the  period  length  decreased. 

Using  a  six-period  plan  will  increase  the  emphasis  upon  effective 
study,  and  will  tend  to  reduce  the  size  and  number  of  study-hall  groups. 
The  required  work,  exclusive  of  physical  education,  will  be  about  twenty- 
one  hours  in  the  seventh  grade,  eighteen  in  the  eighth,  and  twenty  in  the 
ninth.  The  problems  of  scheduling  the  suggested  program  in  a  six- 
period  day  are  somewhat  more  difficult  than  in  the  first  plan,  but  by 
alternating  classes  which  meet  two  or  three  times  a  w^ek,  or  by  using 
split  periods  for  art  and  music,  the  schedule  can  be  made  effective. 
Another  possibility  is  that  of  meeting  the  physical  training  requirements 
largely  or  entirely  by  means  of  short  exercise  periods  scattered  through 
the  day.  Slight  deviations  from  the  hours  indicated  are  permissible, 
providing  the  average  minutes  per  week  for  class  work  indicated  for  each 
subject  are  secured. 

The  hour  period  permits  much  more  effective  direction  of  study,  as 
discussed  below  and  is  recommended  for  that  reason.  As  under  the  first 
plan,  little  home  study  is  necessary  for  pupils  who  carry  only  the  required 
work  in  grades  seven  and  eight. 


32 '    COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

One  or  the  other  of  the  above  plans  for  the  daily  schedule  will  meet 
the  needs  of  the  usual  junior  high  school,  and  it  is  strongly  urged  that 
one  be  adopted.  When  the  exigencies  of  the  local  situation  demand,  how- 
ever, modifications  of  the  above  may  be  permitted.  The  first  considera- 
tion in  determining  the  number  and  length  of  periods  in  such  cases  is  to 
secure  the  average  number  of  minutes  of  net  time  per  week  which  must 
be  provided  for  each  subject  in  actual  class  discussion  and  assignment. 
The  second  is  to  insure  as  much  time  as  possible  for  study  in  school  under 
supervision,  preferably  that  of  the  class  teacher. 

DIVISION  OF  TIME  DURING  THE  CLASS  PERIOD 

Assuming  that  a  class  period  of  forty- five  minutes  or  more  is  provided, 
the  question  arises  as  to  the  best  distribution  of  time  between  study  and 
other  activities.  It  is  probably  not  advisable  to  make  any  arbitrary 
division,  religiously  observed  by  all  teachers,  as  the  very  nature  of  the 
learning  process  forbids.  Vital  problems  do  not  always  arise  at  a  fixed 
point  in  each  class  period,  nor  do  all  class  undertakings  require  the  same 
time  for  completion. 

Flexibility  in  the  use  of  the  period  is  desirable.  When  w6"rk  in 
history,  geography,  or  science  is  organized  in  large  units  instead  of  piece- 
meal fashion,  a  whole  period  or  even  more  may  be  profitably  spent  in 
reading,  observation,  collecting  data  or  experimenting.  On  other  occasions 
a  period  may  be  required  for  reporting  on  a  group  study,  analyzing  data, 
and  drawing  and  testing  conclusions.  In  either  case  the  work  would 
suffer  from  a  rigid  division  of  the  period.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
smaller  units  can  be  developed  and  completed  within  the  limits  of  a 
period  each. 

On  the  average,  however,  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  total  class  time  may 
be  used  in  study,  the  teacher  being  the  best  judge  as  to  the  apportionment 
on  a  given  day*. 

Obviously  a  teacher  may  revert  to  the  "recitation"  plan  of  using  the 
period,  monopolizing  the  time  with  oral  quizzing,  and  depriving  the 
pupils  of  the  opportunity  for  constructive  work.  To  prevent  this  occur- 
rence, to  preserve  the  vital  nature  of  instruction,  and  to  help  each  teacher 
make  such  adjustment  of  time  as  will  secure  the  maximum  results  in  her 
subject  becomes  the  special  responsibility  of  the  supervising  principal. 

ADMISSION 

Admission  to  the  junior  high  school  will  normally  depend  upon  the 
completion  by  tke  pupil  of  the  work  of  the  first  six  grades.  Pupils  who 
have  met  this  requirement  will  usually  constitute  the  chief  part  of  the 
junior  high  school  student  body. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  accordance  with  the  special  functions  of  the 
school,  it  will  not  be  advisable  to  deny  entrance  to  any  student  who  is 
likely  to  profit  by  such  admission.  The  Committee  on  the  Reorganization 
of  Secondary  Education  recommends  that  the  junior  high  school  "admit 
and  provide  suitable  instruction  for  all  pupils  who  are  in  any  respect  so 
mature  that  they  would  derive  more  benefit  from  the  secondary  school 
than  from  the  elementary  school."*  This  recommendation  is  being 

*  Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  page  19. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 33 

followed  quite  generally.  Briggs  found  that  60  per  cent  of  250  junior 
high  schools  reporting  had  established  other  conditions  for  admission 
than  the  completion  of  grade  six.  These  conditions  took  into  account 
such  factors  as  the  maturity,  the  age,  the  size,  or  the  individual  needs  of 
the  pupil,  or  his  probable  abilities.  The  junior  high  schools  of  Massa- 
chusetts are  urged  to  admit  "practically  all  pupils  who  are  thirteen  years 
of  age  and  have  intelligence  quotients  of  eighty  or  more"f  and  similar 
policies  are  in  evidence  throughout  the  country. 

In  behalf  of  such  irregular  admissions  it  may  be  urged  that  the 
elimination  of  over-age  pupils  simplifies  the  problem  of  control  and 
instruction  in  the  lower  grades ;  that  a  mastery  of  all  the  work  of  the 
elementary  school  is  not  always  necessary  for  success  in  the  junior  high 
school;  that  the  physiologically  mature  pupils  find  a  better  social  adjust- 
ment in  the  junior  high  school  than  in  the  grades  below;  that  in  the 
interests  of  the  pupil  and  of  the  state  and  the  community,  work  adapted 
to  the  special  needs  of  retarded  pupils  who  will  very  probably  soon  leave 
school  should  take  precedence  over  continued  drill  in  elementary  school 
subjects,  and  that  more  interest,  better  work,  and  longer  stay  in  school 
are  secured  by  such  admissions. 

Varying  provisions  may  be  made  for  pupils  who  are  admitted  on  non- 
academic  conditions,  depending  upon  the  facilities  of  the  school.  The 
simplest  arrangement  is  to  permit  such  pupils  to  carry  less  than  the 
normal  amount  of  work,  in  accordance  with  their  abilities.  It  is  fre- 
quently reported  that  pupils  who  were  misfits  in  the  lower  grades,  on 
promotion,  soon  demonstrated  their  ability  to  carry  the  regular  work  of 
the  junior  high  school.  Other  possibilities  are  the  provision  of  special 
subjects  or  classes,  permitting  the  pupil  to  take  a  large  amount  of  work 
in  prevocational  subjects,  or  arranging  for  special  attention  and  coaching. 

PROMOTION 

The  average  pupil  will  complete  the  required  work  of  one  grade  each 
year,  and  at  the  end  of  three  years  will  advance  to  the  senior  high  school. 
Certain  variations  from  the  customary  grade  promotion  plan  are  neces- 
sary, however,  in  order  to  carry  out  the  special  purposes  of  the  junior 
high  school.  These  variations  can  best  be  explained  in  connection  with 
the  requirements  of  each  grade. 

Seventh-grade  pupils  should  do  creditable  work  in  English,  history, 
geography,  and  arithmetic  to  earn  full  promotion.  The  prevocational 
work  and  the  limited  elective  must  be  carried  throughout  the  year,  but 
since  these  are  largely  "try  out"  courses,  the  pupil  will  not  be  expected 
to  repeat  the  work  in  case  of  poor  achievement.  The  same  holds  true 
for  French  and  for  the  elective  work  in  art  or  music,  except  that  a  pupil 
may  be  permitted  to  drop  an  elective  without  penalty  after  a  fair  attempt 
has  shown  him  to  be  unable  to  handle  the  work.  Physical  training  is 
required  throughout  the  three  years,  but  without  bearing  upon  promotion. 

In  the  eighth  grade,  subjects  necessary  for  full  promotion  are  English, 
history,  mathematics,  elementary  science,  and  the  limited  elective,  French 
or  business  English.  The  same  conditions  obtain  regarding  the  free 
electives  as  in  grade  seven. 

t  Junior  High  School  Manual,   Massachusetts  Department  of  Education,  page  12. 


34 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

Completion  of  the  ninth  grade  and  promotion  to  the  senior  high  school 
requires  satisfactory  work  in  English,  biology,  one  social  study  and  one 
elective,  a  total  of  four  full-time  subjects. 

The  practice  of  advancing  pupils  by  grades  rather  than  by  subjects 
has  undoubtedly  led  to  much  unnecessary  repetition  of  subjects  and  has 
materially  increased  the  cost  of  instruction.  An  inflexible  promotion 
system  often  causes  loss  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  retarded  pupil, 
leading  all  too  frequently  to  further  failure  and  consequent  elimination. 
It  also  prevents  the  more  capable  pupil  from  advancing 'as  rapidly  as  his 
best  interests  demand,  and  thereby  fails  to  secure  his  maximum  efforts. 

While  few  pupils,  if  any,  should  complete  the  junior  high  school  in 
less  than  three  years,  it  is  imperative  that  measures  be  taken  to  insure 
as  nearly  normal  progress  for  every  pupil  as  he  is  capable  of  making. 
This  can  be  secured  by  a  flexible  promotion  system  which  will  not  penalize 
any  student  too  heavily  for  failure.  Such  a  promotion  system  implies: 

1.  That  a  pupil,  who  has  completed  the  work  in  a  subject  in  one 
grade,  shall  be  promoted  to  the  next  grade  in  that  subject. 

2.  That  when  an  overage  pupil  has  secured  from  a  subject  all  that 
he  is  capable  of  assimilating  he  shall  be  advanced  to  the  next  higher 
grade  in  that  subject. 

3.  That  a  pupil  shall  be  advanced  from  one  grade  to  another  in  a 
given  subject  at  any  time  during  the  year  when  such  transfer  seems  to 
be  demanded  for  the  best  interests  of  the  individual. 

The  need  for  flexible  promotion  is  commonly  admitted.  Seventy-four 
per  cent  of  Briggs'  judges  found  subject  promotion  necessary  and  93 
per  cent  considered  it  either  necessary  or  advisable  for  the  junior  high 
school.  That  it  is  not  more  commonly  employed  is  due  to  the  difficulties 
in  programming  which  it  occasions.  The  larger  schools  can  obviously  go 
much  farther  in  making  such  adjustments  than  can  the  smaller  schools, 
yet  almost  every  school  can  make  some  provisions  for  promotion  by 
subject.  It  is  recommended  also  that  promotion  by  subject  should  permit 
students  who  have  been  promoted  to  tenth-grade  work  in  one  or  more 
subjects  to  transfer  to  the  senior  high  school,  where  sections  of  ninth- 
grade  subjects  must  be  given.  In  systems  where  the  six-year  secondary 
school  is  in  operation,  the  latter  provision  becomes  unnecessary. 

HOMOGENEOUS  GROUPING 

The  program  of  studies  and  the  general  plan  of  instruction  suggested 
in  this  bulletin  afford  many  opportunities  for  adjusting  work  to  meet 
the  individual  needs  and  capacities  of  pupils  as  fast  as  these  are  ascer- 
tained. The  more  easily  administered  plans  deal  with  the  amount  of 
work  and  with  the  grouping  of  pupils. 

The  amount  of  work  accomplished  by  individual  pupils  may  be  varied 
in  two  ways.  First,  the  more  able  pupils  may  carry  more  than  the 
required  number  of  hours,  and  second,  the  requirements  within  the  class 
may  be  adapted  to  the  power  of  the  pupil.  While  the  pupil  will  not 
shorten  the  time  spent  in  the  junior  high  school  by  carrying  more  than 
the  required  subjects  in  grades  seven  and  eight,  it  should  be  the  policy 
of  the  school  to  urge  pupils  to  add  electives  enough  to  keep  them  fully 
occupied.  The  pupils  should  be  led  to  feel  that  the  electives  are  really 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 35 

an  ^opportunity  for  them  to  secure  greater  values  from  the  school,  and 
the  idea  of  more  rather  than  of  less  work  should  be  promulgated.  It  is 
expected  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  more  promising  pupils, 
especially  those  who  anticipate  college  entrance,  will  elect  French.  If 
this  general  plan  is  carried  out,  there  will  be  quite  a  little  variation  in 
the  amount  of  work  undertaken  by  different  pupils  each  year.  The  best 
students  should  carry  nearly  the  maximum,  while  the  poor  students  will 
carry  only  the  required  work,  and  others  will  range  between. 

Adaptation  of  the  work  to  the  abilities  of  the  pupils  may  be  furthered 
by  using  a  system  of  basic  and  supplementary  assignments  in  many 
classes.  This  plan  demands  the  mastery  of  the  fundamentals  by  each 
student.  In  addition,  each  is  encouraged  to  do  as  much  supplementary 
work  as  he  can,  in  the  form  of  additional  problems,  readings,  or  investiga- 
tions. The  success  of  the  plan  depends  upon  the  teacher's  skill  in 
establishing  the  right  pupil  attitudes  toward  the  work. 

The  assembling  of  a  large  number  of  young  people  in  the  junior  high 
school  permits  a  more  effective  grouping  of  pupils  on  the  basis  of 
abilities  than  is  possible  in  the  smaller  grade  schools.  The  achievement 
records  of  pupils  in  the  lower  grades  are  usually  available,  and  may  be 
reinforced  with  the  judgments  of  teachers  and  the  results  of  standard 
educational  and  intelligence  tests.  On  the  basis  of  such  data,  very  satis- 
factory classifications  may  be  made,  and  homogeneous  groups  formed  in 
various  subjects.  These  groups  will  progress  at  varying  rates,  and  will 
cover  differing  amounts  of  work,  due  precautions  being  taken  that  the 
fundamentals  are  secured  by  all. 

Another  special  provision  which  may  be  made  is  the  segregating  of 
sexes  for  instruction  in  other  subjects  than  physical  training  and  pre- 
vocational  work.  Experience  shows  that  such  separation  of  boys  and 
girls  may  be  effective  in  subjects  involving  emotional  reactions,  as  art, 
music,  or  literature,  and  a  number  of  schools  have  attempted  segregation 
in  science,  mathematics,  or  even  in  all  subjects. 

Some  variations  may  be  made  in  the  programs  of  individual  pupils  in 
accordance  with  their  special  interests,  although  no  sharp  separation  of 
curricula  is  planned  even  for  the  ninth  grade.  The  limited  electives  and 
the  free  electives  make  it  possible  to  emphasize  certain  interests  of  the 
pupil,  as  in  art,  music,  prevocational  work,  language,  and  the  like.  Large 
junior  high  schools  may  extend  these  possibilities  by  adding  approved 
electives.  It  is  planned  that  the  pupils  will  have  sufficient  contact  with 
various  fields  of  subject  matter  in  the  junior  high  school  to  enable  them 
to  make  intelligent  selections  from  the  more  sharply  defined  curricula  of 
the  senior  high  school. 


36  COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

VIII.    METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Although  good  teaching  should  by  no  means  be  limited  to  the  junior 
high  school,  it  must  be  peculiarly  characteristic  of  this  organization. 
The  successful  carrying  out  of  the  functions  of  the  junior  high  school 
depends  largely  upon  the  extent  to  which  teachers  can  be  led  to  employ 
methods  of  instruction  and  of  control  which  are  in  harmony  with  the 
purposes  of  the  institution  and  which  are  adapted  to  the  particular 
needs  and  interests  of  boys  and  girls  of  early  adolescence.  The  im- 
portance of  skillful  instruction  is  paramount.  This  point  can  hardly  be 
over-emphasized. 

Teaching  in  the  upper  grades  of  the  usual  8-4  plan  is  commonly 
unfavorably  criticized  because  of  the  emphasis  placed  upon  memory 
processes,  as  in  drills  and  reviews  in  preparing  pupils  for  examinations, 
and  because  of  the  accompanying  failure  to  develop  interest,  initiative, 
and  power  in  productive  work.  More  specifically,  it  is  charged  that 
assignments  of  work  are  perfunctory  and  without  motive,  that  the  pupils' 
study  is  consequently  purposeless  and  ineffective,  often  carried  on  un~der 
unfavorable  conditions  at  home  or  school,  and  that  too  much  of  the  class 
period  is  occupied  by  the  teacher  in  quizzing  on  poorly-prepared  lessons, 
rather  than  in  real  teaching. 

1.    PURPOSES  OF  TEACHING 

In  the  junior  high  school,  these  weaknesses  must  be  eliminated.  The 
teacher  must  firmly  believe  that  pupils  can  and  should  engage  in  their 
school  work  with  purposes  and  enthusiasms  approximating  those  in  life 
outside  the  school.  It  is  the  teacher's  first  responsibility  to  develop  such 
purposes  and  interests.  This  places  the  emphasis  upon  forward-looking, 
constructive  teaching  rather  than  on  "lesson  hearing."  The  next  respon- 
sibility of  the  teacher  is  for  the  development  of  the  power  of  effective 
work,  either  individual  or  cooperative,  by  the  pupils,  so  that  they  may 
achieve  the  desired  results  in  knowledge  and  skill  most  directly  and 
economically,  with  increasing  independence  and  self  reliance.  At  the 
same  time,  new  interests  must  be  created,  former  interests  broadened  and 
developed,  and  desires  aroused  in  the  pupil  for  further  study  or  achieve- 
ment. Finally,  there  must  be  a  continual  effort  to  discover  the  special 
powers  and  capacities  of  each  individual  pupil,  to  provide  opportunities 
for  the  development  and  utilization  of  such  abilities  in  connection  with 
class  work,  and  to  capitalize  them  in  guiding  the  pupil  into  further  lines 
of  profitable  endeavor. 

2.    DIRECTED  LEARNING 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  any  one  type  of  teaching  can  safely  be 
recommended  for  all  teachers  and  for  all  subjects.  The  special  methods 
used  will  naturally  vary  with  the  experience  and  skill  of  the  teacher,  the 
age  and  advancement  of  the  pupils,  the  nature  of  the  subject  taught,  and 
the  facilities  at  hand  in  way  of  library  or  laboratory  equipment.  Never- 
theless, there  are  certain  fundamentals  of  good  teaching  set  forth  in 
modern  psychological  and  educational  discussions  and  demonstrated  in  the 
best  teaching  practice  which  must  be  observed  in  any  effective  method. 

The  general  plan  for  class  procedure  which  best  exemplifies  these 
fundamentals  and  which  promises  to  contribute  most  effectively  to  the 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 37 

purposes  of  education  during  the  junior  high  school  period  is  that  which 
provides  for  directed  learning  within  the  classroom.  A  brief  account  of 
the  main  features  of  this  type  of  class  procedure  follows.  Needless  to 
state,  those  phases  of  work  will  not  all  be  of  equal  importance  each  day, 
but  they  must  form  the  basis  for  all  class  or  individual  progress. 

The  plan  for  directing  learning  seeks  the  development  of  power  by 
the  pupil  rather  than  the  accumulation  of  knowledge,  and  intelligent 
purposeful  study  rather  than  much  reciting  of  relatively  meaningless 
material.  The  teacher  who  directs  learning  regards  the  class  as  a  co- 
operative group  with  many  interests,  purposes,  and  experiences  in 
•common.  Her  task  is  to  see  that,  either  collectively  or  individually,  the 
pupils  engage  in  such  activities  and  have  such  experiences  as  will  produce 
the  maximum  development  of  their  abilities  and  insure  their  control  of 
the  necessary  elements  of  subject  matter. 

a.  Using  the  experiences  and  interests  of  the  class  as  a  point  of 
departure,  by  skillful  question  or  suggestion,  she  helps  the  class  to  locate 
and  define  points  of  common  interest,  the  next  step  to  be  taken,  as  it 
were,  in  the  progress  of  their  work,  whether  it  be  a  matter  of  acquiring 
information,  solving  a  problem,  carrying  out  an  experiment,  developing 
a  skill,  enjoying  an  experience,  or  producing  some  result  of  an  objective 
sort.  She  further  attempts  to  regulate  the  situation  in  such  a  fashion 
that  each  student  will  really  make  the  class  purpose,  or  an  essential  part 
of  it,  his  own,  instead  of  accepting  it  as  an  arbitrary  assignment.  The 
greatest  demands  upon  the  teacher's  skill  are  made  during  this  phase  of 
learning,  yet  upon  the  genuineness  of  the  needs,  motives,  or  purposes 
which  she  establishes  will  depend  the  vitality  of  the  ensuing  procedures. 

6.  Next  comes  a  consideration  of  the  method  by  which  the  desired 
results  are  to  be  attained,  and  a  definite  placing  of  responsibilities.  The 
teacher's  part  consists  in  suggesting  and  directing,  seeing  that  the  plan 
of  work  is  satisfactory,  that  difficulties  are  anticipated,  and  that  each 
pupil  understands  clearly  what  is  to  be  done,,  how  it  is  to  be  done,  and 
just  what  his  own  part  is.  The  complete  assignment  should  usually  be 
restated  by  pupils  or  teacher,  and  there  is  much  to  recommend  having 
.the  pupils'  record  in  small  notebooks,  kept  for  this  purpose,  all  assign- 
ments for  study  outside  of  class.  Following  this  plan,  the  teacher  has 
abundant  opportunities  for  shaping  the  pupils'  habits  of  thought  in 
locating  problems  and  in  deciding  how  to  attack  them,  or,  in  other  words, 
for  developing  the  beginning  of  a  scientific  method. 

c.  If  the  long  class  period  is  in  use,  as  has  been  urged,  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  new  work  may  be  largely  completed  in  class,  under  the  im- 
mediate direction  of  the  teacher.  This  is  particularly  desirable  for  the 
seventh-grade  classes,  which  should  have  no  home  study  further  than 
may  be  required  in  general  reading,  collecting  materials,  or  making  ap- 
plications of  principles  already  learned.  In  this, way,  learning  will  be 
fostered  under  most  propitious  conditions,  and  effective  study  habits 
given  considerable  emphasis.  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  grades,  some  home 
study  may  be  necessary,  but  even  in  these  grades  greater  efficiency  will 
be  secured  by  having  a  considerable  portion  of  the  preparation  completed 
under  supervision.  The  requirement  for  home  study  should  not  exceed 
one  hour  daily  for  the  eighth  grade  and  one  and  one-half  hours  for  the 
ninth.  The  technique  of  directing  study  is  discussed  under  the  caption, 
"Improving  Methods  of  Study." 


65244 


38 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

d.  The  concluding  phase  of  the  unit  of  work  is  the  reporting,  dis- 
cussing, and  judging  the  results  of  study.  This  may  come  at  the  end  of 
the  period,  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  class  meeting,  or  may  even  form 
an  accompaniment  of  acts  of  study  in  which  observation  and  experience 
furnish  much  of  the  data.  In  the  usual  textbook  method,  the  "recitation" 
or  oral  testing  has  occupied  the  major  part  of  the  class  period.  As 
directed  learning  gives  first  place  to  intelligent  study,  it  thereby  reduces 
to  a  minimum  the  time  taken  for  testing  of  individual  pupils  by  the 
teacher.  It  is  highly  desirable  that  the  pupils  be  given  much  responsi- 
bility in  this  final  phase  of  the  work.  Data  must  be  evaluated,  evidence 
weighed,  and  conclusions  drawn  and  tested.  In  case  of  acquisition  of 
skills  or  habits  or  association  forming,  performances  may  be  measured 
against  objective  standards.  The  point  is  that  each  pupil  must  become 
his  own  critic,  or,  in  case  of  a  cooperative  undertaking  in  which  an 
individual  contributes  a  part,  the  worth  of  the  contribution  should  be 
judged  by  the  groups.  When  the  pupils  thus  bring  their  work  to  a 
logical  conclusion,  oral  or  written  testing  by  the  teacher  will  be  necessary 
only  to  spur  on  the  less  active  students,  to  insure  completeness  in  work, 
or  to  meet  administrative  requirements  for  grading. 

The  thoughtful  teacher  will  perceive  the  difference  between  the  type 
of  instruction  here  presented  and  the  usual  "recitation"  and  will  note  the 
significance  of  each  step  in  relation  to  the  general  purposes  and  functions 
of  the  junior  high  school.  In  her  own  practice  she  should  strive  to  set  up 
class  situations  which  will  challenge  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  make  them 
conscious  of  real  needs  to  be  met,  questions  to  be  answered,  or  problems 
to  be  solved.  In  this  way  only  will  the  pupil  come  into  his  own  as  the 
chief  factor  in  the  learning  process. 

The  essentials  of  directed  learning  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

a.  Intelligent  purposing  of  action  by  the  pupils,  on  the  basis  of  real  needs  or 
interests. 

b.  Planning   by   the   pupils   of  methods'  of  procedure,    resulting  in   clear-cut, 
effective  assignments. 

c.  Preparation   of  work  as  far  as  possible  during  the  class  period,    insuring 
satisfactory  study  habits,  and  needed  individual  attention. 

d.  Forming  conclusions  and  evaluating  results  largely  by  the  pupils  themselves. 

SOCIALIZED  RECITATION 

The  plan  for  directed  learning  presented  above  immediately  suggests 
many  possibilities  for  utilizing  the  various  cooperative  and  social  impulses 
of  young  people  in  the  classroom.  In  fact,  there  is  considerable  evidence 
to  show  that  cooperative  work  is  more  effective  than  strictly  individual 
efforts.  In  almost  any  subject,  the  class  may  be  organized  on  the  co- 
operative plan,  as  with  student  chairmen,  secretary,  and  program  com- 
mittee. The  students  can  and  will  accept  much  responsibility  for  planning 
the  work,  making  assignments,  and  carrying  on  discussions,  always  under 
the  general  oversight  of  the  teacher.  A  class  exercise  conducted  by  the 
pupils  themselves  in  the  form  of  a  business  meeting  gives  excellent 
training  in  sharing  responsibilities  and  in  exercising  tact  and  judgment. 
When  student  initiative  and  cooperation  are  thus  emphasized,  the  exercise 
is  commonly  known  as  a  "socialized  recitation."  The  implication  regarding 
other  class  exercises  carried  by  this  term  is  significant. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 39 

PROJECT  TEACHING 

In  the  hands  of  the  skillful  teacher,  the  plan  for  directed  learning 
leads  definitely  into  project  teaching.  In  fact,  the  distinction  between 
the  two  methods  is  primarily  a  matter  of  degree  rather  than  of  kind. 

Discussions  of  project  teaching  by  Kilpatrick,  Charters,  Hosic,  Steven- 
son, and  others  lay  much  stress  upon  the  importance  of  helping  pupils 
to  work  at  undertakings  which  are  of  real  significance  to  them  and 
which  are  the  outgrowths  of  activities,  curiosities,  interests,  and  desires 
which  are  normal  for  the  pupils  in  question.  The  undertakings  are  to 
originate  and  to  be  carried  to  completion  under  as  nearly  natural  condi- 
tions as  possible.  The  keynote  is  found  in  the  purposing  by  the  indi- 
vidual or  by  the  group,  and  the  regulation  of  later  action  in  terms  of 
this  purpose. 

Whether  school  situations  can  be  set  up  which  will  lead  pupils  into 
all  desirable  fields  of  subject  matter,  or  to  acquire  all  needed  habits  and 
skills,  remains  to  be  seen.  Certainly,  all  will  agree  upon  the  desirability 
of  more  real,  whole-hearted  work  by  the  pupils,  and  the  teacher  is  con- 
tinually challenged  to  produce  in  her  classes  an  approximation  to  the 
realities  outside  of  school. 

Projects  undertaken  by  junior  high  school  pupils  may  be  either  indi- 
vidual or  group  affairs,  and  will  vary  widely  in  purpose  and  in  time 
needed  for  completion.  For  the  teacher  the  special  technique  is  found  in 
securing  the  proper  initiation  of  projects  and  in  so  organizing  and  direct- 
ing activities  that  essential  values  are  secured  by  each  pupil.  Many  val- 
uable suggestions  on  project  teaching  may  be  found  in  recent  literature. 

LIBRARY  METHOD 

Just  as  natural  sciences  may  be  studied  most  effectively  through  much 
contact  with  nature  itself,  usually  under  the  experimental  conditions  of 
the  laboratory,  so  social  sciences  may  frequently  be  pursued  to  advantage 
through  the  use  of  much  more  extensive  reference  and  source  material 
than  is  given  in  the  usual  textbook. 

A  well-equipped  library  is  an  indispensable  feature  of  the  junior  high 
school.  The  library  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  accommodate  an  entire 
class  engaged  in  reference  work  at  one  time,  and  classes  should  fre- 
quently visit  the  library  in  the  course  of  their  undertakings.  Consider- 
able time  may  be  spent  profitably  in  collecting  data  on  questions  of 
historic,  social,  civic,  or  scientific  importance,  in  consulting  and  com- 
paring authorities,  and  in  arriving  at  conclusions.  Incidentally,  training 
may  be  given  in  library  usage  as  well  as  in  note  taking,  briefing,  and 
evaluating  data,  and  additional  interest  is  given  to  the  work.  This  plan 
is  really  an  integral  part  of  directing  learning. 

Marked  similarity  will  be  noticed  between  the  above  methods.  They 
are  by  no  means  mutually  exclusive,  although  each  has  some  special 
point  of  emphasis.  A  thorough  knowledge  and  control  of  each  by  the 
junior  high  school  teacher  is  strongly  urged. 

IMPROVING  METHODS  OF  STUDY 

The  common  complaint  of  the  high  schools  and  colleges  that  pupils 
come  to  them  not  knowing  how  to  work,  together  with  the  results  of 


40 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

investigations  into  pupils'  study  habits,  has  led  to  a  general  recognition  of 
the  need  for  more  attention  to  methods  of  study.  Two  obvious  gains 
have  resulted:  first,  the  developing  of  a  body  of  facts  and  principles 
regarding  effective  study;  and,  second,  the  administrative  provision  of 
longer  periods  so  that  pupils  may  work  under  the  direct  oversight  of  the 
teacher. 

Both  of  these  gains  must  be  included  in  the  junior  high  school.  The 
desirability  of  a  period  of  from  forty-five  to  sixty  minutes  has  already 
been  indicated.  On  the  average,  one-half  the  total  class  time  will  normally 
be  spent  in  definite  assignment  and  study.  The  achievement  of  the  class 
during  this  work  period  will  be  determined  primarily  by  the  success  of 
the  teacher  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  in  helping  them  to  find 
and  clearly  define  points  of  attack  and  to  plan  methods  of  procedure. 

Additional  instruction  and  training  should  be  given,  however,  in 
forming  many  elementary  work  habits  such  as  vigorous  attack,  concen- 
tration, finishing  the  task  on  time,  checking  results,  testing  one's  self, 
and  the  like,  and  in  the  handling  of  various  kinds  of  reference  materials, 
outlining,  and  keeping  notes.  Instruction  sheets  on  how  to  study,  to  be 
pasted  in  notebooks  and  discussed  from  time  to  time,  have  frequently  been 
valuable.  While  the  class  are  studying  under  her  direction,  the  teacher 
should  give  individual  suggestions  as  necessary,  always  with  the  purpose 
of  helping  the  pupil  to  work  up  to  his  capacity  and  to  become  independent 
and  self  reliant.  For  the  work  outside  the  regular  class  periods,  the 
pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  plan  and  observe  a  study  program,  and  he 
should  be  instructed  regarding  the  physical  conditions  for  good  mental 
work.  The  interest  and  assistance  of  the  parents  should  be  enlisted 
wherever  possible  in  providing  suitable  conditions  for  home  study  and  in 
developing  regular  study  habits  in  the  child.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to 
demand  that  the  pupil  show  a  steady  increase  in  efficiency  in  study  as 
he  progresses  through  the  junior  high  school.  To  achieve  this  result, 
there  is  demanded  a  gradual  transition  in  method  through  these  years. 
In  the  seventh  grade  the  teacher  will  naturally  be  a  large  factor  in 
directing  the  activities  of  the  class  period,  in  anticipating  difficulties,  and 
in  giving  suggestions. 

As  the  pupil  advances  through  the  school,  the  teacher  should  throw 
him  more  and  more  upon  his  own  resources,  giving  greater  scope  for  self 
reliance,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  junior  high  school  course  he  will  have 
developed  confidence  and  power,  enabling  him  to  carry  on  much  inde- 
pendent study  in  school  or  at  home,  thus  preparing  him  for  the  require- 
ments of  the  senior  high  school. 

VISUAL  INSTRUCTION 

Many  phases  of  the  pupils'  environment,  such  as  earth  forms,  plant 
and  animal  life,  industrial  and  commercial  processes,  institutions,  and  the 
like,  can  be  studied  to  best  advantage  through  first-hand  contact.  Almost 
every  community  affords  opportunities  for  objective  study  in  connection 
with  some  school  subjects,  either  by  means  of  class  excursions,  or  through 
visits  and  reports  by  small  groups  of  students.  That  these  opportunities 
are  not  better  realized  in  American  schools  is  to  be  regretted.  The  possi- 
bilities for  enriching  instruction,  insuring  live  interest,  correct  impres- 
sions, and  clear  thinking  are  great  indeed.  The  class  visit  to  local  points 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 41 

of  interest,  under  the  direction  of  pupil  leaders,  affords  a  valuable  social 
training,  while  the  student  who  reports  upon  his  individual  visits  or 
investigations  has  a  real  message  and  a  receptive  audience. 

In  many  instances,  however,  such  study  of  real  objects  or  processes 
can  not  be  carried  on  directly  and  the  pupils  must  secure  their  ideas  from 
the  printed  page,  the  spoken  work,  or  from  visual'  representation.  The 
rapidly  developing  possibilities  for  visual  instruction  through  slides,  films, 
or  projected  material  should  be  utilized  by  the  teacher  at  this  point. 
Slides  and  films  are  now  available  upon  many  subjects  pertaining  to 
geography,  history,  civics,  sciences,  vocational  subjects,  literature,  and 
even  foreign  language.*  Through  the  use  of  such  materials  in  teaching, 
more  vivid  impressions  are  secured,  more  nearly  correct  ideas  are  formed, 
and  retention  is  aided. 

Excellent  opportunities  for  oral  composition  are  found  in  describing 
the  persons,  events,  scenes,  or  processes  which  are  portrayed.  The  pupils' 
interest  is  increased  by  such  instruction,  frequently  giving  an  added 
incentive  to  further  study. 

Every  school  needs  a  machine  for  slides,  films,  and  projection  of 
pictures,  maps,  charts,  and  tables.  Collections  of  visual  materials  for  all 
subjects  should  be  made  by  librarian,  teachers,  and  pupils.  These  mate- 
rials, properly  catalogued  and  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  classes,  become 
a  very  definite  aid  to  effective  instruction. 


*  Information  on  available  film  and  slide  service  may  be  secured  from  the  Extension 
Division  of  the  University  of  Oregon. 


42  COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 


IX.    SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION  AND  CONTROL 

1.  PURPOSE- 

The  junior  high  school,  dealing  as  it  does  with  boys  and  girls  at  an 
age  where  social  impulses  are  becoming  powerful  factors,  has  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  training  pupils  for  effective  participation  in  later  com- 
munity relations.  Education  is  secured  not  only  from  class  instruction 
but  also  from  every  phase  of  school  activity.  The  whole  organization  of 
the  school,  and  the  methods  of  control  should,  therefore,  be  planned  to 
insure  the  most  effective  training  to  the  youthful  participants,  as  well  as 
to  secure  administrative  efficiency. 

The  junior  high  school  must  make  the  transition  from  the  carefully 
controlled  conditions  of  the  elementary  school  to  the  greater  freedom  of 
the  senior  high  school.  It  must  develop  a  feeling  of  individual  responsi- 
bility and  increasing  power  of  self-direction.  The  spirit  of  the  school  is 
expressed  in  direction  rather  than  in  domination  of  the  pupils. 

2.  METHODS 

Three  aspects  of  the  socializing  process  in  the  junior  high  school  need 
attention;  namely,  socialization  through  participation  in  the  control  and 
direction  of  the  school  community  organization,  through  instructional  or 
classroom  processes,  and  through  organized  extra-curricular  activities. 
The  possibilities  along  these  lines  are  suggested  by  the  following  account 
from  a  school  in  which  such  a  program  has  been  in  effect  for  some 
years : * 

"1.  In  carrying  on  the  general  administration  of  the  school,  student 
cooperation  (in  government)  is  desired  rather  than  a  student  'self- 
government.'  The  attempt  is  made  to  develop  the  consciousness  of  both 
individual  and  group  responsibility  through  having  pupils  face  these 
responsibilities  continuously,  as  members  of  the  'school  community.'  The 
school  is  organized  on  the  rollroom  basis,  each  room  selecting  a  chairman 
and  a  monitor  each  semester.  The  chairmen  are  ex  officio  members  of 
the  school  council,  the  president,  vice-president,  secretary  and  treasurer 
of  the  council  being  elected  at  regular  school  elections.  The  rollroom 
chairmen  take  charge  of  the  rooms  for  parliamentary  drills,  elections,  or 
special  programs,  and  appoint  rollroom  committees.  The  council,  under 
the  direction  of  the  social  science  instructor,  handles  matters  of  general 
school  interest,  apportions  school  funds  to  various  enterprises,  and  takes 
charge  of  social  affairs  and  other  public  enterprises.  The  president  of 
the  school  community  is  chairman  and  manager  of  school  assemblies, 
which  consist  in  large  part  of  programs  given  by  the  students,  featuring 
debate,  reading,  music,  dramatics,  or  other  exercises  growing  out  of  the 
class  work.  Through  taking  part  in  the  different  phases  of  school 
organization,  many  students  are  given  valuable  training  throughout  the 
year,  since  they  learn  to  plan,  to  direct,  or  to  follow,  and  are  continually 
impressed  with  the  idea  of  their  responsibilities  to  the  school  community. 

"2.  The  same  idea  of  stimulating  all  students  rather  than  a  few 
especially  capable  ones  to  take  an  active  part  in  group  situations  is  also 

*  University  High  School  Bulletin,  pages  9-11. 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS ; 43 

emphasized  in  the  classrooms.  Classes  are  frequently  organized  for 
problem  studies,  plans  made  and  assignments  made  largely  by  the  pupils, 
who  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  work  in  a  wholesome  manner.  In  the 
English  and  history  classes,  debates  or  special  programs  are  frequently 
arranged,  or  classes  cooperate  in  working  out  lectures  to  accompany 
selected  sets  of  slides,  each  pupil  having  certain  assigned  parts.  Drama- 
tization in  the  English  and  foreign  language  classes  and  the  appeal  to 
special  interests  in  other  classes,  as  science,  have  resulted  in  some  excel- 
lent work  in  oral  English.  The  fact  that  the  best  work  of  this  type  is 
selected  for  repetition  in  general  assembly  stimulates  the  maximum  of 
effort  and  creates  a  spirit  of  good-natured  rivalry  between  the  Various 
English  and  foreign  language  classes.  On  two  mornings  each  week  short 
periods  are  given  to  rollroom  exercises  concerned  partly  with  current 
events  but  chiefly  with  matters  of  immediate  school  interest,  the  pupils 
taking  the  initiative  in  reporting  and  discussing  events  and  tendencies 
that  affect  the  school. 

"3.  Other  opportunities  to  further  the  socialization  program  are 
found  in  the  non-academic  activities  of  the  school.  A  limited  number  of 
school  parties  are  given  during  the  year,  the  responsibilities  for  planning 
and  directing  the  various  features  being  given  to  appointed  committees, 
who  have  done  excellent  work  in  making  each  affair  a  success.  A  large 
number  of  students  are  members  of  the  glee  club  which  renders  special 
music  at  school  assemblies  and  renders  a  school  operetta  some  time  during 
the  year.  All  are  encouraged  to  join  some  form  of  directed  play  activities, 
such  as  baseball  or  basketball  teams,  which  are  formed  chiefly  for  intra- 
mural games.  The  Girls'  Reserve  and  the  Boy  Scouts  are  well  represented, 
the  former  organization  being  directed  chiefly  through  the  school." 


44  COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

X.  TENTATIVE  MINIMUM  STANDARDS  FOR 
JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  ORGEON 

I.    THE  ORGANIZATION 

A.  A  separate  unit  of  grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine,  or 

B.  A  three-year  division  of  a  six-year  high  school,  such  division  to  com- 

prise grades  seven,  eight,  and  nine. 

C.  Class  periods  not  less  than  forty  minutes  each. 

D.  Teachers  assigned  in  general  on  the  departmental  plan. 

E.  The  enrollment  of  sections  averaging  not  to  exceed  twenty-five  and 

no  section  containing  more  than  thirty  pupils. 

F.  The  organization,  administration,  and  supervision  clearly  indicating 

an  effective  plan  for  a  gradual  transition  by  pupils  from  elemen- 
tary school  to  high  school  methods;  e.  g.,  gradual  introduction  of 
departmental  teaching,  gradual  removal  of  room  teacher  advisor- 
ship,  etc. 

II.    BUILDING  AND  EQUIPMENT 

A.  An  adequate  and  well-adapted  building  containing: 

1.  Auditorium  seating  not  less  than  enrollment  of  school. 

2.  Gymnasium  not  less  than  thirty  feet  by  fifty  feet. 

3.  At  least  one  science  laboratory  with  running  water  and  electricity. 

4.  At  least  one  adequately  furnished  and  equipped  room  for  household  art 

or  science. 

5.  At  least  one  shop  adequately  furnished  and  equipped  for  vocational  or 

prevocational  work. 

6.  Adequate  housing  and  shelving  for  the  library,  either  in  the  study  hall 

or  in  an  adjacent  room. 

B.  Equipment  for  effective  teaching  including: 

1.  Laboratory  equipment  intelligently  selected  and  in  such  quantities  that 

effective  laboratory  work  in  general  science  may  be  done.  (The  list 
for  general  science  as  set  forth  in  the  Official  Directory  issued  by 
the  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction  should  be  the  minimum 
equipment.) 

2.  An  adequate  library  including : 

a.  At   least   one   recent   standard   encyclopedia — International   Brit- 

tanica,  or  Americana. 

b.  One  unabridged  dictionary  for  every  forty  pupils  enrolled,  up  to 

two  hundred  pupils. 

c.  Adequate  references  for  teaching  the  courses  in  (1)   English,   (2) 

history  and  civics,  (3)  science  and  geography.  Not  less  than 
150  well-selected  volumes  in  each  of  the  first  two  of  the  fore- 
going fields  and  100  in  the  last,  or  less  than  one  volume  in  each 
field  for  each  pupil  enrolled  in  classes  in  that  field. 

3.  A   standard   projection   lantern,    with   attachment   for   projecting   from 

opaque  materials ;   a  room  and  screen  suitable  for  use  of  the  same. 

III.    TEACHING  STAFF 

A.  All  teachers  either  graduates  of  accredited  normal  schools  or  teacher 
colleges  or  graduates  of  standard  colleges  or  universities,  and 
having  taken  courses  in  education  to  the  extent  of  not  less  than 
fifteen  semester  hours  or  twenty-two  term  hours.  (Until  Septem- 
ber 1,  1925,  this  provision  will  not  apply  to  teachers  of  more  than 
five  years'  experience  in  grades  six,  seven,  and  eight,  or  in  the 
high  schools  in  this  state.) 


FOR  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 45 

B.  Not  less  than  one-third  nor  more  than  two-thirds  of  teaching  staff 

graduates  of  a  four-year  course. 

C.  Not  less  than  25  per  cent  of  the  teaching  staff  composed  of  men. 

D.  Junior  high   school   teachers   paid   on   the  same  salary   schedule  as 

teachers  in  the  senior  high  school  of  the  same  preparation  and 
experience;  the  average  salaries  paid  teachers  in  the  junior  high 
school  being  within  $150  of  the  average  of  the  salaries  paid  in  the 
senior  high  school,  exclusive  of  principals. 

E.  No  teacher  required  to  teach  more  than  six  classes  daily.     (Principals 

in  schools  of  less  than  200  pupils  shall  not  teach  more  than  120 
minutes  daily,  in  schools  from  200  to  500  pupils  not  more  than 
sixty  to  ninety  minutes  daily.  Principals  of  schools  of  more  than 
500  pupils  should  be  free  to  give  full  time  to  supervision  and 
administration. ) 

IV.    INSTRUCTION 

A.  Teaching  methods  showing  definite  and  considerable  effort  to: 

1.  Direct  and  supervise  the  learning  of  pupils  and  to  give  training  in  good 

methods  of  study. 

2.  Make  instruction  concrete  and  real  through  illustration  and  application. 

3.  Determine  the  specific  purposes  for  which  the  subject  is  taught  and  to 

adapt  instruction  to  the  securing  of  these  purposes. 

4.  Provide  for  training  in  self  direction  in  individual  or  group  study  by 

means  of  projects  and  study  units. 

B.  Some  adequate  means  of  homogeneous  grouping  to  provide  for  indi- 

vidual differences  of  needs,  interests,  and  abilities  of  pupils. 

V.    PROGRAM  OF  STUDIES 

The  program  of  studies  outlined  by  the  authority  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent '  of  public  instruction.  Until  further  announcement,  the 
program  included  in  this  manual  to  be  accepted  as  a  standard. 

VI.    ADMISSIONS,  PROMOTIONS,  AND   CREDITS 

A.  Admission  to  the  first  year  of  the  school  of: 

1.  Any    boy    or    girl    who   would   be    accepted    in    the   seventh    grades   of 

standard  Oregon  graded  schools. 

2.  Any  b*oy  or  girl  fourteen  years  of  age  or  older,  whether  or  not  he  or 

she  has  completed  the  sixth  grade,  who  otherwise  is  eligible  to  attend 
the  seventh  grade  and  whose  mental  ability  is  not  obviously  below 
normal. 

B.  Promotion  by  subject  in  all  schools  having  in  general  more  than  one 

section  of  each  class. 

C.  A  plan  of  crediting  at  par  value  for  high  school  graduation  all  work 

taken  in  the  ninth  grade  and  of  allowing  one  high  school  unit  to 
those  students  who  have  passed  in  foreign  language  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades. 

VII.    SOCIALIZATION 

The  operation,  under  favorable  conditions,  of  a  definite  plan  to 
provide  desirable  civic  and  social  training ;  e.  g.,  through  student 
participation  in  the  organization  and  management  of  various 
phases  of  school  life,  including  extra  curricular  activities. 


46 COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  STANDARDS 

XI.    SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

COMPREHENSIVE  BOOKS  AND  PAMPHLETS. 

Briggs,  Thomas  H.  The  Junior  High  School.  Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin 
Company,  1920,  350  pp.  X.  Contains  extensive  bibliography. 

Davis,  C.  O.  Principles  and  Plans  for  Reorganization  of  Secondary  Education. 
39  pp.  Chapter  IV  in  High  School  Education,  Johnston,  Chas.  H.  and 
others.  Scribners,  1912,  551  pp. 

Detroit,  Michigan,  Board  of  Education.  The  Intermediate  School  in  Detroit. 
The  Detroit  Educational  Bulletin,  December,  1921  (Bull.  No.  6),  39  pp. 

Koos,  Leonard  V.  The  Junior  High  School.  New  York,  Harcourt,  Brace  and 
Howe,  1920. 

Massachusetts  Department  of  Education.  Junior  High  School  Manual.  Bos- 
ton, 1921,  No.  5.  (Whole  number  125.)  60  pp.  Contains  selected 
bibliography. 

North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools.  Proceedings  of 
the  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Meeting.  C.  O.  Davis,  Secretary,  Ann  Arbor, 
Michigan.  1921.  pp.  75. 

Ohio  Department  of  Education.  The  Junior  High  School,  Manual  of  Require- 
ments and  Suggestions.  Columbus,  Ohio.  1920,  pp.  39. 

University  of  Oregon.  University  High  School.  Eugene,  Oregon.  University 
of  Oregon  Bulletin,  May,  1921.  (Vol.  18,  No.  5,  part  1,  32  pp.) 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES  ON  TEACHERS  AND  INSTRUCTION. 

Bolenius,  Emma  J.  The  Teaching  of  Oral  English.  Philadelphia,  J.  B.  Lip- 
pincott  Company,  1914. 

Gosling,  Thos.  W.  The  Selection  and  Training  of  Teachers  for  Junior  High 
Schools.  Eighteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  part  1,  pp.  166-89. 

Hall-Quest,  Alfred  L.  Supervised  Study.  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1916. 

Hosic,  James  F.  Outline  of  the  Problem-Project  Method.  The  English  Journal, 
7:597-602. 

Kilpatrick,  William  H  Project  Method.  The  Use  of  the  Purposeful  Act  in 
the  Educative  Process.  New  York,  Bureau  of  Publications,  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University.  Teachers  College  Bulletin,  10th  series,  No.  3, 
1918. 

MacGregor,  Anne  L.  Supervised  Study  in  English  for  Junior  High  Schools. 
New  York,  The  Macmillan  Company,  1921. 

Robbins,  Charles  L.    The  Socialized  Recitation.    Allyn  and  Bacon,  1920,  pp.  100. 

Simpson,  Mabel  E.  Supervised  Study  in  American  History.  New  York,  The 
Macmillan  Company,  1918,  pp.  278. 

Stevenson,  John  A.  The  Project  Method  of  Teaching.  New  York,  The  Mac- 
millan Company,  1921. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Washington,  D.  C.,  Superintendent  of  Documents. 
The  following  bulletins : 

1915,  No.   23,   The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics. 

1916,  No.   28,  The  Social  Studies  in  Secondary  Education. 

1917,  No.      2,  Reorganization  of  English  in  the  Secondary  Schools. 
1917,  No.   49,   Music  in  Secondary  Schools. 

1917,  No.   50,  Physical  Education  in  Secondary  Schools. 

1917,  No.   51,  Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education. 

1918,  No.   19,  Vocational  Guidance  In  Secondary  Education. 
1918,  No.   35,  Cardinal  Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

1920,   No.      1,   The  Problem  of  Mathematics  in  Secondary  Education. 

1920,  No.   26,   Reorganization  of  Science  in  Secondary  Schools. 

1920,   Secondary  School  Circular  No.  6,  Junior  High  School  Mathematics. 

SPECIAL  REFERENCES  ON  HOUSING  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Douglass,   Harl   R.     Housing  the  Junior  High   School.      The  American    School 

Board  Journal,  January,  1921. 
Ittner,    W.    B.      The    Intermediate    School.      American    School    Board   Journal, 

August,  1919. 
National  Education  Association  and  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and 

Secondary  Schools.     Report  of  the  Committee  on  Library  Organization  and 

Equipment.     Chicago,  American  Library  Association,  1920. 


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